Sanskrit inherits from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German, Greek, and also English.

However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages.

Further, this development in the later language[lower-alpha 1] is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.[2][3]

Background

In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by the following process:

  • Take the stem-form of the first element, i.e., remove its inflexion;[lower-alpha 2]
  • Combine the two elements with a single accented syllable.

In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one.[3][4][5]

The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya.[6]

Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric.[7]

Endocentric compounds

An endocentric compound, usually called determinative, is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts:

  • blackbird → a type of black bird[lower-alpha 3]
  • White House → the official residence of the US president[lower-alpha 4][8]
  • siṃha·purás → lion-city (Singapore)

Exocentric compounds

An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components:

  • redhead → someone with red hair[lower-alpha 5]
  • pickpocket → someone who picks someone else's pockets[lower-alpha 6][7]
  • 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth

Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound.[9]

Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:

Classification

In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds[lower-alpha 7] are divided into the following main classes:[10]

  • Tatpuruṣa
    • Tatpuruṣa proper
    • Karmadhāraya
      • Dvigu
    • Nañ-tatpuruṣa
    • Prādi and gati
    • Upapada
  • Bahuvrīhi
    • Dvigu
  • Dvandva
  • Avyayībhāva

The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi, are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations. Alongside the term bahuvrīhi, tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding.[3]

The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.

Tatpuruṣa (determinative)

A tatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one.[11][12]

Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique[lower-alpha 8] case.[10][11][lower-alpha 9]

Tatpuruṣa proper

The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives.[11][13]

WordMeaning, resolutionRelationship
jaya·prepsuvictory-seekingAccusative
deva·dattá-god-given: given by the godsInstrumental
viṣṇu·baliViṣṇu-offering: offering to ViṣṇuDative
svarga·patitá-heaven-fallen: fallen from heavenAblative
vyāghra·buddhitiger-thought: the thought of it being a tigerGenitive
yajur·veda-sacrifice-knowledge: the knowledge of sacrificeGenitive
gṛha·jata-house-born: born in the houseLocative

Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa (descriptive)

In a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.[14][15]

WordMeaning, resolution
nīlôtpalablue lotus
sarva·guṇaall good quality
priya·sakhadear friend
maha·rṣígreat-sage
rajata·pātrásilver cup
Dvigu-tatpuruṣa (numerative)

In essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral.[lower-alpha 10] Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of karmadhārayas.[16][17]

WordMeaning, resolution
dvi·rājá-(the battle of) two kings
tri·bhuvana-three-world: the universe
tri·yugá-three ages
tri·diváthe triple heaven
daśâṅgulá-ten fingers' breadth
ṣaḍ·ahá-six day's time
sahasrâhṇyá-thousand days' journey

dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below.

Nañ-tatpuruṣa (negative)

In a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative, a negator: a-, an- or na-, just like the English un-, Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a-, an-.[18][19]

WordMeaning, resolution
á·brāhmaṇanon-Brahmin
án·aśvanon-horse: not a horse
á·patinon-master: not a master
á·vidyānon-knowledge: ignorance
á·kumāraunyoung: old
á·śraddhāunbelief, non-creed

Upapada-tatpuruṣa

These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own.[lower-alpha 11] These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.[20][21]

WordMeaning, resolution
sa·yújjoining together
su·kṛ́twell-doing, a good deed
kumbha·kāra-pot-maker
sva·rā́jself-ruling: sovereign
manu·jáManu-born, born of Manu, man
svayam·bhū́self-existent
eka·jáonly-born
jala·dáwater-giving: a cloud
sarva·jñáall-knowing: an omniscient person

Aluk-tatpuruṣa

In an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:[22]

First Element → WordMeaning, resolutionCase
ojas → ojasā·kṛtá-done with might [23]Instrumental
ātman → ātmane·pada-'word for self': the reflexive voiceDative
dyaus → divas·pati'lord of the sky': a name of Indra[24][25]Genitive
yudh → yudhi·ṣṭhira-'firm in battle': a name[26]Locative

Dvandva (co-ordinative)

These consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit:[27]

Itaretara-dvandva

The result of itaretara-dvandva[lower-alpha 12] is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:[28][29]

WordMeaning, resolution
mitrā́·váruṇauMitra and Varuṇa
dyāvā·pṛthivīheaven and earth
vrīhi·yavaúrice and barley
candrādityaumoon and sun
devāsurā́sthe gods and the demons
hasty·aśvāselephants and horses
roga·śoka·parītāpa·bandhana·vyasanānidisease, pain, grief, bondage and adversity

Samāhāra-dvandva

Words may be organised in a compound to form a metonym, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.[30]

WordLiteral ⇒ Meaning
pāṇi·pādam'hands and feet' ⇒ limbs, appendages
āhāra·nidrā·bhayam'food, sleep and fear' ⇒ vicissitudes, features of life

Ekaśeṣa-dvandva

Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva,[lower-alpha 13] where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.[31]

CompoundResolutionMeaning
pitaraumātā + pitā'mother and father' ⇒ parents[lower-alpha 14]
mṛgāḥmṛgaḥ + mṛgā'does and bucks' ⇒ deer
putrāḥputrāḥ + duhitaraḥ'sons and daughters' ⇒ children

Āmreḍita (iterative)

While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented.

Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devam or devó-devas ('deity after deity').[32]

Bahuvrīhi (possessive)

Bahuvrīhi[lower-alpha 15] is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a grammatical modifier which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective.

A bahuvrīhi compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of bahuvrīhi would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles a block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham" [valley]').

The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation:[33][34]

  • indra·śatrú-, 'Indra's killer' ⇒ índra·śatru-, 'having Indra as killer'[lower-alpha 16]
  • bṛhad·ratha-, 'a great chariot' ⇒ bṛhád·ratha-, 'having great chariots'
  • sūrya·tejás-, 'sun's brightness' ⇒ sū́rya·tejas-, 'possessing the brightness of the sun'

A few typical examples of such compounds:[36]

WordMeaning, resolution
mayū́ra·roman-peacock-plumed
ugrá·bāhu-strong-shouldered
jīvitá·vatsa-alive-childed: having living children[lower-alpha 17]
mádhu·jihva-honeytongue, honey-tongued: talking nicely
pátra·hasta-vessel-handed: holding a vessel in the hand
khara-mukha-donkey-faced

Dvigu-bahuvrīhi

When the first element of a bahuvrīhi is a numeral, the compound is called dvigu.[lower-alpha 18] An English example would be a halfwit ('one who has half of their mind').

A few typical examples of such compounds:[38]

WordMeaning, resolution
éka·cakra-one-wheeled
éka·padone-footed
cátur·aṅga-four-limbed
saptá·jihva-seven-tongued
aṣṭá·putra-eight-sonned: having eight sons
náva·dvāra-nine-doored
śatá·danthundred-toothed
sahásra·nāmanthousandname: having a thousand names

Avyayībhāva (adverbial)

Avyayībhāvas ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable (avyaya) element.[39][40]

WordMeaning, resolution
adhy·ātmamconcerning the self
anu·rathambehind the chariots
upa·rājamnear the king; kingside
praty·agnitowards the fire
prati·niśamevery night
yathā·śaktiper-strength: according to one's ability
sa·cakramsimultaneously with the wheel
antar·jalaminter-water: within the water

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "In Vedic, noun compounds are hardly more frequent than in Homeric Greek, but their frequency increases throughout the history of the language.. in the later language the occurrence in a single short sentence of several compounds of four or five members is perfectly normal, and in certain styles compounds of twenty or more members are not thought excessive" - Coulson [1]
  2. ↑ This process suggests the possibility of an early stage of Proto-Indo-European where words could appear in a sentence without case terminations.
  3. ↑ a particular species, not just any bird that is black
  4. ↑ the specific presidential residence, not just any house that is white
  5. ↑ that is, not a head
  6. ↑ that is, not a pocket
  7. ↑ samāsa·vṛtti
  8. ↑ accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, or locative
  9. ↑ The word tatpuruṣa (a 'that-man', in the sense of 'that person's man', i.e., 'someone's agent') is itself a tatpuruṣa compound.
  10. ↑ The word dvi·gu itself is an example of dvigu: lit. 'two-cow', used in the sense of 'worth two cows'.
  11. ↑ called a bound form
  12. ↑ enumerative dvandva
  13. ↑ one-(stem)-remains
  14. ↑ compare Spanish padres ⇒ 'parents'
  15. ↑ 'much-riced', i.e., a rich person
  16. ↑ To illustrate the importance of correct accentuation, the grammarian Patañjali (living around 150 BCE) is said to have cited the story of Vṛtra, who on account of the wrong accent used on this compound ends up instead of being Indra's killer, himself killed by Indra![35]
  17. ↑ Indeed in later Sanskrit, the tendency to use compounds instead of verb-based clauses is so strong, in a classical drama, to express gratitude for having children who are alive, one would say the equivalent of 'thank heaven, I'm alive-childed': diṣṭyā, jīvita·vats'âsmi [37]
  18. ↑ An example will be the word dvigu itself, which as a bahuvrīhi means '[a] two-cow [person]'; i.e., one who has two cows (dvau gāvau).

References

  1. ↑ Coulson, p. xxii.
  2. ↑ Coulson, p. xxi.
  3. 1 2 3 Burrow, p. 209.
  4. ↑ Whitney, §1246.
  5. ↑ Kale, §180
  6. ↑ Kale, §184.
  7. 1 2 Adams, p. 35.
  8. ↑ Meyer, p. 179.
  9. ↑ Fortson, §6.82.
  10. 1 2 Kale, §201.
  11. 1 2 3 Coulson, pp. 87.
  12. ↑ Kale, §200.
  13. ↑ Kale, §203.
  14. ↑ Whitney, §1279.
  15. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §1.54.
  16. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §1.56.
  17. ↑ Whitney, §1312.
  18. ↑ Whitney, §1288.
  19. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §1.58.
  20. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §1.59.
  21. ↑ Whitney, §1286.
  22. ↑ Kale, §208, 215
  23. ↑ Kale, §206.
  24. ↑ Kale, §215.
  25. ↑ Whitney, §361.
  26. ↑ Kale, §217.
  27. ↑ Kale, §187.
  28. ↑ Burrow, p. 217.
  29. ↑ Whitney, §1253.
  30. ↑ Kale, §188-189.
  31. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §173-174.
  32. ↑ Whitney, §1260.
  33. ↑ Whitney, §1293.
  34. ↑ Kale, §246.
  35. ↑ Deshpande, p. 24.
  36. ↑ Burrow, p. 215.
  37. ↑ Coulson, p. 122.
  38. ↑ Whitney, §1300.
  39. ↑ Whitney, §1313.
  40. ↑ Tubb & Boose, §1.48.

Bibliography

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