The schoolgirl stereotype is one way in which Asian women have been eroticized.[1]

An Asian fetish is a strong sexual preference for people of Asian descent or heritage. The term generally refers to women specifically of East or Southeast Asian descent,[2][3][4][5][6] though this may also include those of South Asian descent.[6][7]

The origins of the Asian fetish are unclear. As soon as Western men began to explore and colonize Asia, they reported that East Asian women were exceedingly physically attractive, innocent, and friendly.[8][9] White male Dutch colonists fetishized Southeast Asian women in colonial Indonesia, on the basis of the darker skin and hair color of the local women.[10] Similar accounts were reported in other colonised territories such as British India where it was common for English men to have Indian mistresses against a backdrop where Indian women were sexualised through, what scholars describe as, a typical colonial gaze and viewed as seductive, sensual and exotic.[6] After World War 2, Japanese women gained prominence in American beauty pageants, at a time when large numbers of Japanese war brides were entering the United States.[11]

Studies of physical attractiveness have demonstrated that Asian women are ranked as the most physically attractive women in Western countries,[12] and they are the most desired women in online dating.[13][14] In addition to being over-represented in pornographic films, there is widespread hyper-sexualization of Asian women in popular culture, including hip-hop music videos.[12]

The psychological effects of the fetish are unclear. Some authors have suggested that the fetish may be flattering to Asian women, while others believe it is harmful to their self-esteem, as it can reduce their self-worth to their physical attributes.[15][16] The fetish may also be annoying to white women, who feel that their status is downgraded by Asian women's popularity.[17]

The derogatory term yellow fever is sometimes used to describe the fetishization of East Asians and Southeast Asian women by non-Asians, as well as having a preference for dating or marrying women of East Asian and Southeast Asian origin.[5] The usage of "yellow" stems from the color terminology for race that is sometimes applied to people of East Asian descent.

History of origins

It has been posited that modern Asian fetishism in the United States emerged in the aftermath of United States-led wars in Asia.[18] Western men deployed overseas saw Asian women as more physically attractive, innocent, and sexually superior to White women.[19]

In the 1800s, after the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry, word began to spread in the United States about the seductive femininity of Asian women.[9] Nationalistic fears that Asian women would seduce White men and destroy White families led to the passage Page Act of 1875, which prevented Chinese women from entering the United States.[9][20] However, another purpose of the ban was to limit the reproduction of the Chinese working class in America.[21]

As early as the 1920s, it was noticed that White Dutch men preferred South East Asian women over White women.[10] When Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands, a new beauty ideal was established, which ranked local women with light brown skin and lustrous black hair at the top.[10] The American consul general to Indonesia remarked that, to the average man, a mixed-race Indonesian woman was considered more attractive than a "pure" White woman, because White women's complexions were too pale.[10] The legacy of this colonial fetishization continues to be reflected in local literature, where women with European features (such as blond hair) are pitied, and it is written that "a golden-colored skin is the greatest gift that Allah can bestow upon a woman".[10]

Miss Universe winner Akiko Kojima in 1959. Kojima's victory began the first era of representation of Asian women in the West.

After World War II, the U.S. military took control of Japan, and U.S. soldiers began to interact with Japanese women.[22] Although the American military initially forbid relations with Japanese women; the U.S. servicemen were "enamored" by the femininity of Japanese women, and formed relationships with them anyway.[22] There was a perception that Japanese women were superior to American women.[22] American soldiers praised the Japanese women, and there was a widespread impression "that a Japanese woman's heart was twice as big as those of her American sisters".[22]

In 1959, Akiko Kojima, a Japanese woman, became the first woman of color to win the Miss Universe beauty pageant. That same year, Miyoshi Umeki, also a Japanese woman, won an Academy Award. This period marked the beginning of the phenomenon known as the 'Oriental wave' -- during which Asian women first gained prominence in Western media.[11] The wave mainstreamed a certain type of Asian femininity: slender, shy, and intelligent; yet also sexual.[11] It also marked the beginning of the end of White women's dominance as the mainstream beauty ideal in America.[11]

Terminology and usage of yellow fever

A common term used for Asian fetishization (particularly with East and Southeast Asians) is yellow fever. The term is used as a derogatory pun on the disease of the same name, comparing those with a fetish for East and Southeast Asians or "Orientals" to people who are infected with a disease.[2]

Yellow fever is used in Asian fetishization to refer to the color terminology of people of East Asian descent (and some Southeast Asians) because historically, persons of East Asian heritage have been described as "yellow people" based on the tone of their skin.[23]

Hwang argues that this phenomenon is caused by the stereotyping of Asians in Western society. The term yellow fever is analogous to the term jungle fever, a derogatory expression used for racial fetishism associated with dating between different races.[23]

Research on racial preferences

A 1995 study found that a diverse sample of men in the United States generally rated Asian American and Hispanic American women as more attractive than White American and African-American women, and that this seemed to correlate with physical features shared between the Asian and Hispanic women.[24]

In 2007, a study using a sample of 400 Columbia University students did not find evidence of a preference among White men for women of East Asian descent. The study implied that most people preferred to date within their own race. However, the study also noted that 47% of all hookups were inter-racial, with the majority being White male-Asian female pairings.[25] This was attributed to the preference neutrality of the Asian women who participated. According to Matthew Johnson, the participants in this study consistently made decisions that contradicted their stated preferences.[26]

A 2013 study, which used a sample of 2.4 million online interactions, found that Black, White, and Hispanic men preferred Asian women.[27]

A 2018 study using a sample of 187,000 daters found that Asian women were the most desired group of women.[28]

In 2012, an experiment conducted in England found that Asian women were rated as more attractive than White and Black women. It was proposed that because Asian women's features are perceived as more feminine, they are considered more attractive than other women, which explains the high rate of interracial marriages between Asian women and White men. A 2018 experiment conducted in Australia supported these findings, as both Asian and Australian participants perceived Asian women's features as more feminine than white women's.[29]

This research is consistent with the hyper-sexualization of Asian women, which explains the Asian fetish, the high outmarriage rate of Asian women, their increased sexual capital relative to Asian men, and their ranking at the top of the hierarchy of female attractiveness.[30]

According to research published by the University of South Carolina in 2020, male and female participants rated Asian women as more attractive than White women.[31] This experiment replicated prior studies which found that Asian women's features are perceived as more feminine than White women's.[32] It was proposed that the higher femininity ratings for Asian women would be beneficial for Asian women's sexual capital.[33]

Psychological effects of fetishization

Based on responses from a few Asian-Americans, the fetish creates a psychological burden on people of East and Southeast Asian descent.[34] They have been reported to experience doubt and suspicion that men who find them attractive may be primarily attracted to their features and culture perceived as exotic rather than their personal traits or characteristics.[23] People that are the targets of these racial fetishes may have experiences associated with feelings of depersonalization.[23] The fetishized body of an East or Southeast Asian woman becomes a symbol of other people's desires; she may not be valued for who she is, but what she has come to represent.[35] Racial depersonalization can be especially hurtful to these women in situations where being recognized as an individual is important, such as non-sexual romantic relationships, because a person may feel unloved if they sense they could be replaced by someone with similar qualities.[23]

However, Phoebe Eng notes that not all Asian women consider the Asian fetish a bad thing. Some regard the Asian fetish as flattering, or even liberating.[16] According to research conducted at the University of California, the widespread preference for Asian women can boost the self esteem of Asian women by making them feel exceptionally 'pretty', however, this also causes resentment among White women, who feel that the popularity of Asian women has reduced their own status.[17]

Another effect of this fetish is that it may cause its targets to feel like an other, because they are separated and held to a different standard.[23] Asian-American women report being complimented in ways that imply they are attractive because of their Asian ancestry.[36] This can affect a woman's self-worth and self-respect.[23]

Men with a preference for women of East or Southeast Asian descent may also affected by the stigma of their perceived fetish.[23] In Robin Zheng's view, these men may be seen as inferior by others, because of the stereotype about the feminine superiority of Asian women, which reduces the status of Asian women to objects that are only valuable for sex and not as complete human beings. However, according to social research by Kumiko Nemoto, white men with Asian women do not experience any social stigma, and are even envied by other men, because of a shared cultural notion that Asian women are highly desirable. However, couples involving Asian men paired with white women did experience significant social hostility.[37]

It has been argued that the notion of an Asian fetish creates the unnecessary and erroneous perception of multiracial relationships as being characterized by "patriarchal, racist power structures" in relationships.[38] However, research conducted by Kumiko Nemoto has found that second-generation Asian women in interracial relationships with white men often earn more money and have higher education than their partners. She also found that Asian women view these relationships as less patriarchal and more egalitarian.[39]

Some research has sought to determine how the mainstream American culture might affect Asian-American body satisfaction. Several studies say that Asian women are more satisfied with their bodies than white women, while others say they have comparable levels of dis-satisfaction.[40]

Interracial marriages

A 1998 article in The Washington Post states that 36% of young Asian Pacific American men born in the United States married White women, and 45% of U.S.-born Asian Pacific American women took White husbands during the year of publication.[41] In 2008, 9.4% of Asian American men married to White American women while 26.4% of Asian American women were married to White American men.[42] 7% of married Asian American men have a non-Asian spouse, 17.1% of married Asian American women are married to a White spouse, and 3.5% of married Asian men have a spouse classified as "other" according to U.S. census racial categories.[43] 75% of Asian/White marriages involve an Asian woman and a White man.[43] There was a spike in White male, Asian female marriages during and following the U.S. Army's involvement with wars in Asia, including the Pacific War of World War 2, Korea, and Vietnam.[43] In 2010, 219,000 Asian American men married White American women compared to 529,000 White American men who married Asian American women.[44]

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the Westerner's image of the Asian woman has been seen as subservient, loyal, and family oriented.[45][8]

After World War II, particularly feminine images of Asian women made interracial marriage between Asian American women and White men popular.[45] Asian femininity and White masculinity are seen as a sign of modern middle-class manhood.[45][8] Postcolonial and model minority femininity may attract some White men to Asian and Asian American women and men see this femininity as the perfect marital dynamic.[45]  Some White men racialize Asian women as "good wives" or "model minorities" because of how Asian women are stereotyped as being particularly feminine.[45][8]

In preparation for a documentary on Asian fetish called Seeking Asian Female, Chinese-American filmmaker Debbie Lum interviewed non-Asian men who posted online personal ads exclusively seeking Asian women. Things that the men found appealing in Asian women included eye-catching long black hair, a mysterious kind of look — dark eyes, sometimes giving more consideration to how their partner feels than themselves, subtlety and quietness, as well as Asian women's eyelids. Lum characterized the preconceived stereotype associated with an Asian fetish as an obsession with seeking "somebody submissive, traditional, docile... the perfect wife who is not going to talk back", but found she had to overcome stereotypes and expectations just like the participants did.[46]

Asian women may be viewed by White men with an Asian fetish as "good wives",[45] as in they are perceived to be able to properly take care of their children during the day and fulfill their partner's sexual desires at night. In interviews done by Bitna Kim, "Caucasian" men explain their fetish for Asian women. The Caucasian men interviewed fantasize that an Asian woman possesses both beauty and brains, that she is "sexy, intelligent, successful, professional, caring, and family oriented"; that she does not wear "White girl clothes" and heavy makeup, and that they are not high maintenance.[47] Hence, the men believe that Asian women have respectable mannerisms.[47] These men see Asian women to be exotic, thus desirable, because of their supposed mysterious beauty and possession of a physical appearance perceived to be petite.[47] Sexually, the men in these interviews had a commonality. While almost all disagreed with describing Asian women as submissive, they all believed that Asian women have submissive sex ("liking to explore new positions, being willing to experiment, or enjoying kinky sex, such as spanking"). They believed that an Asian woman was agreeable and did not mind pleasing men.[47] These interviews show that some "Caucasian" men with Asian fetish believe that an Asian woman embodies a perfect wife as a "princess in public and a whore in the bedroom".[47]

Since 2002, marriages between Swedish men and Thai women have become increasingly common.[48]

Historically, the number of Thai women marrying Western men began to rise in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat's economic policies which attracted foreign investment and Western men to Thailand. There is a social stigma in the country against Thai women marrying White men, who are also referred to as farang (a term used for people of European origin), but research published in 2015 indicated that an increasing number of young middle-class Thai women were marrying foreign men. A generation earlier, Thai women marrying foreign men had mostly been working class.[49]

Sources indicate that Sri Lanka is popular among Western "marriage bureaus" which specialize in the pairing of men who were "Europeans, North Americans and other westerners" with foreign women.[50] The first and largest wave of Sri Lankan immigrants to Denmark were Sinhalese women who came to the country in the 1970s to marry Danish men they had met back in Sri Lanka.[51] Statistics also show that marriages of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian men with Thai or Indian women tend to last longer than those of Indian men marrying Danish, Swedish, or Norwegian wives.[52]

Filipina, Thai, and Sri Lankan women have traveled as mail-order brides to Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.[53] Many of the countries affected by the modern mail-order bride business, typically those in East and South-East Asia, have a history of US military involvement. Soldiers stationed in these countries developed ideas of Asian women as sex workers, bargirls and geishas, and applied the resultant stereotype of sexualized obedience to Asian-American women. The marketing techniques used by mail-order bride companies generally reinforce this stereotype.[54]

Statistics detailing the sponsorship of spouses and fiancées to Australia between 1988/1989 and 1990/1991 showed that more women from the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia, South Korea, and India were sponsored for citizenship than men from the same countries.[55]

Data published in 1999 indicated that an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 German men annually traveled abroad for sex tourism, with the Philippines, Thailand, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Hong Kong as their main destinations.[56] For some White men, sex tourism to countries such as Thailand is built around a fantasy that includes the possibility of finding love and romance. This idea is based on the stereotype of "the Oriental woman" who is considered to be beautiful and sexually exciting as well as caring, compliant, and submissive.[57]

The hip hop community has been described as "infatuated" with Asian women.[58] Within hip-hop culture, Asian women have long been fetishized as beauty ideals, and they have also been sexually objectified.[59][60]

The hip hop group 2 Live Crew eroticized Asian women in their 1988 hit single "Me So Horny", which topped the charts in the Netherlands.[61] The song was so sexually explicit that the State of Florida banned its sale, however the ban was later overturned after 2 Live Crew filed a free speech lawsuit.[62][63]

In later songs, 2 Live Crew spoke about their fetish for Asian women, and their desire to have sex with Japanese women.[60] Asian models were featured prominently in their music videos.[60] Asian women continue to be fetishized within the hip-hop genre in the 21st century, as evidenced by their outsized prominence as sexual dancers in hip-hop music videos.[64]

Asian women in the media tend to be portrayed in two ways: as an exotic foreigner, docile and nonthreatening and sexual but also innocent; or as the nerd who is still aesthetically pleasing, but also emotionless and career-oriented. This leads many Asian women to believe that they have to be in one of these boxes. It tends to convey the message that if they are smart, they cannot be sexual; or, if they are sexual, they tend to not be aware of it.[65] By the late 2010s, movies such as Crazy Rich Asians and The Farewell began to break these boundaries, but they are movies that center around the Asian experience, allowing for more diversity across Asian characters.

In her essay "Hateful Contraries: Media Images of Asian Women", British filmmaker Pratibha Parmar comments that the media's imagery of Asian women is "contradictory" in that it represents them as "completely dominated by their men, mute and oppressed" while also showing them as "sexually erotic creatures".[66]

In her essay Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed: Images of Asian Women, American filmmaker Renee Tajima-Peña identifies two basic stereotypes of Asian women in the United States.. The "Lotus Blossom Baby" is a feminine and delicate sexual-romantic object. In contrast, the "Dragon Lady" is treacherous and devious, and in some cases, a madam. Tajima suggests that this view of Asian women contributes to the existence of the Asian mail-order bride industry in the US.[67]

Pornography

Several studies have implied that Asian women are over-represented in the American pornography industry. Asian women make up perhaps 20% of all female performers, despite being roughly 2.5% of the U.S. population. Asian men also appear to be considerably over-represented, at 10% of male actors.[68] "Asian" is the most popular and sought after genre of pornography.[69]

East Asian trans women or "ladyboys" are heavily over-represented in pornography, and are highly desired as potential mates, as they are fetishized for their physical features. According to Adult Video News, the highest-selling trans pornography depicts Asian trans women.[70][71]

In 2021, Pornhub's most searched terms were "hentai," "Japanese," and "Asian."[72] Jennifer Lynn Gossett and Sarah Byrne conducted a content-analysis study of 32 pornographic websites that advertised scenes depicting the rape or torture of women and found that nearly half of the sites used depictions of 34 images depicted Asian women as victims of rape, while 24 images of white women could be found. No images of black women being raped could be found.[73] However, according to Emily Rothman, more recent research suggests that Asian women are treated less aggressively than other races of women in American pornography, and are even less objectified, but also have less agency in scenes than the other women.[68]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Sciullo, N.J. (2018). Communicating Hip-Hop: How Hip-Hop Culture Shapes Popular Culture. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 979-8-216-06351-3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  2. 1 2 "Fetishization of East and Southeast Asian Women". North Carolina Asian Americans Together. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
  3. ↑ Alolika (2014-02-21). "Playboy Petrarch: Racial Fetishism and K-pop". SeoulBeats. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
  4. ↑ King, Ritchie (20 November 2013). "The uncomfortable racial preferences revealed by online dating". Quartz. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  5. 1 2 Ren, Yuan (July 2014). "'Yellow fever' fetish: Why do so many white men want to date a Chinese woman?".
  6. 1 2 3 S. Chou, Rosalind (5 January 2015). Asian American Sexual Politics: The Construction of Race, Gender, and Sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN 9781442209251.
  7. ↑ Ashoka Bandarage (1998). "Women and capitalist development in Sri Lanka, 1977-87". Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. 20 (2): 73–74. doi:10.1080/14672715.1988.10404449.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Woan, Sunny (March 2008). "White Sexual Imperialism: A Theory of Asian Feminist Jurisprudence". Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice. 14 (2): 275. ISSN 1535-0843.
  9. 1 2 3 Thomas, Sabrina (December 2021). Scars of War: The Politics of Paternity and Responsibility for the Amerasians of Vietnam. U of Nebraska Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4962-2935-9.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Gouda, Frances (2008). Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942. Equinox Publishing. p. 167. ISBN 978-979-3780-62-7.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Lim, Shirley Jennifer (1 December 2005). "5. Riding the Crest of an Oriental Wave: Foreign-Born Asian "Beauty"". 5. Riding the Crest of an Oriental Wave: Foreign-Born Asian “Beauty”. New York University Press. pp. 155–188. ISBN 978-0-8147-6524-1.
  12. 1 2 Zheng 2016, p. 406.
  13. ↑ Mason 2016.
  14. ↑ Nedelman 2018.
  15. ↑ Zheng 2016.
  16. 1 2 Eng, P. (2000). Warrior Lessons: An Asian American Woman's Journey Into Power. Atria Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-0-671-00958-8. Retrieved 2023-10-02. Not all of us agree, for instance, that the current trend of "Asian fetish" is bad. In fact, for some of us, the new visibility of Asian women, even though stereotyped, can actually be liberating. As Melissa de la Cruz wrote... "I find something deliciously wicked and liberating about it...In one breath it banishes the image of the asexual, four-eyed, Asian superbrain forever, replacing it with a certain prurient attractiveness reserved only for femmes fatales. Asian fetish? Where do I sign on?"
  17. 1 2 Zinzius, B. (2005). Chinese America: Stereotype and Reality : History, Present, and Future of the Chinese Americans. P. Lang. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-8204-6744-3. Retrieved 2023-10-02. Researchers at the University of California Berkeley Diversity Project found corresponding resentment among White women, who felt put down by these Asians who are the fantasy object of desire.
  18. ↑ Ramirez, Rachel (19 March 2021). "The history of fetishizing Asian women". Vox.
  19. ↑ Woan, Sunny (March 2008). "White Sexual Imperialism: A Theory of Asian Feminist Jurisprudence". Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice. 14 (2): 2, 19. ISSN 1535-0843.
  20. ↑ Moore, John H. (2008). Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. Macmillan Reference USA/Thomson Gale. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-02-866021-9.
  21. ↑ Ross, Susan Dente (2011). Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media. ABC-CLIO. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-313-37892-8. "Having learned from their experiences with African Americans who reproduced and demanded citizenship, education and land, the U.S. government sought to fully control the Asian-American worker by controlling their reproduction and their citizenship rights through laws that prohibited Asian-American female migration."
  22. 1 2 3 4 Nagatomo, Diane Hawley (7 April 2016). Identity, Gender and Teaching English in Japan. Multilingual Matters. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-78309-522-3.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Zheng, Robin (2016). "Why Yellow Fever Isn't Flattering: A Case against Racial Fetishes" (PDF). Journal of the American Philosophical Association. 2 (3): 400–419. doi:10.1017/apa.2016.25.
  24. ↑ Cunningham, Michael R.; Roberts, Alan R.; Barbee, Anita P.; Druen, Perri B.; Wu, Cheng-Huan (February 1995). ""Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours": Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 68 (2): 267. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261. ""All groups of judges made more positive ratings of the Asian and Hispanic targets compared with the Black and White targets."
  25. ↑ Fisman, Raymond; Iyengar, Sheena S.; Kamenica, Emir; Simonson, Itamar (2008). "Racial Preferences in Dating". The Review of Economic Studies. 75 (1): 117–132. doi:10.1111/j.1467-937X.2007.00465.x. ISSN 0034-6527. JSTOR 4626190. "Recall, however, that even though the race of the partner strongly influences individual decisions, 47% of all matches in our data are inter-racial."
  26. ↑ Johnson, Matthew D. (7 April 2016). Great Myths of Intimate Relationships: Dating, Sex, and Marriage. John Wiley & Sons. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-118-52131-1.
  27. ↑ Mason, Corinne Lysandra (2 September 2016). "Tinder and humanitarian hook-ups: the erotics of social media racism". Feminist Media Studies. 16 (5): 822–837. doi:10.1080/14680777.2015.1137339. ISSN 1468-0777. S2CID 148072618. "Like Tinder, users of Facebook’s “Are You Interested” “swipe” photos of prospective matches in a “Hot or Not Fashion.” data from 2.4 million interactions on the Facebook dating application revealed that men self-identifying as black, white, Latino preferred Asian women. Self-identified Asian, white, Latina women preferred white men (Ritchie King 2013; Stout 2013)."
  28. ↑ Nedelman, Michael (8 August 2018). "Online dating study: Are you chasing people 'out of your league'?". CNN. "Race plays heavily into the results, with Asian women and white men being the most sought after overall."
  29. ↑ Stephen, Ian D.; Salter, Darby L. H.; Tan, Kok Wei; Tan, Chrystalle B. Y.; Stevenson, Richard J. (2018-07-03). "Sexual dimorphism and attractiveness in Asian and White faces". Visual Cognition. 26 (6): 442–449. doi:10.1080/13506285.2018.1475437. ISSN 1350-6285. The perception that White faces are more masculine than Asian faces provides support for Lewis' (2012) hypothesis that interracial marriage can be explained by differences in sexual dimorphism and thus advances our understanding of the gender asymmetries in interracial marriage.
  30. ↑ Zheng 2016, p. 406: "It is this double feminization that increases the sexual capital of Asian women but not that of Asian men, a fact perfectly borne out in the oft-noted greater number of relationships between Asian women and White men compared to the number of Asian men in relationships with White women (e.g., Feliciano, Robnett, and Komaie 2009), in attractiveness ratings that rank Asians highest among women but lowest among men (Lewis 2012), and in the greater representation of Asian women compared to Asian men in popular media (Schug et al. 2015). This cross-disciplinary body of work supports the claim that it would be utterly unrealistic to deny that lengthy exposure to a culture historically saturated with sexualized stereotypes of Asian women contributes to an individual’s sexually preferring them, even if that contribution is not obvious or accessible to introspection."
  31. ↑ Yang 2020: "Attractiveness ratings were higher for Asian females (M = 4.24; SD =1.88) relative to White females (M = 4.17; SD =1.76), but lower for Asian males (M = 3.06; SD = 1.68) relative to White males (M = 3.50; SD = 1.65). Together with results from masculinity ratings, these data imply that ratings of attractiveness might be dependent on phenotypic prototypes of masculine and feminine traits. The attractiveness of sexually dimorphic faces may cue characteristics important in mate choice such as health or dominance. (See Rhodes, 2006, for review.)"
  32. ↑ Yang 2020:"This thesis is a replication and extension of prior studies that found that Asian men and women were perceived as more feminine than their European counterparts (Wilkins, Chan & Kaiser, 2011)."
  33. ↑ Yang 2020: "Previous studies suggest that Asian faces as a group, regardless of biological sex, were judged as more feminine than masculine relative to a prototypical face. In addition, masculinity ratings were lower for faces in the experimental sample if they closely resembled the prototypical Asian face (Wilkins, Chan & Kaiser, 2011), a face with small eyes and fuller cheeks (Mok, 1999). In the study by Wilkins, Chan and Kaiser (2011), participants...found that Asians were rated as the least masculine racial group and the most feminine racial group. In other words, looking Asian was related to looking more feminine, which although likely beneficial for Asian women, could potentially be detrimental to the viewer perception of masculinity of Asian males."
  34. ↑ Masequesmay, G. (1996). Embodying Asian/American Sexualities. Routledge. pp. 182–183. ISBN 0-415-91436-1. Retrieved 2023-10-02.
  35. ↑ Kwan, SanSan (Winter 2002). "Scratching the Lotus Blossom Itch". Tessera. 31: 41–48.
  36. ↑ Zheng 2016, p. 9
  37. ↑ Braithwaite, Ann; Orr, Catherine M. (11 August 2016). Everyday Women's and Gender Studies: Introductory Concepts. Routledge. p. 378-379. ISBN 978-1-317-28530-4. "The Asian American female-white male couples I interviewed reported little social hostility or familial opposition, especially when compared to Asian American male-white female couples; in other words, Asian American women coupled with white men seemed to be much more socially accepted than Asian American men with white women. Some men stated that having an Asian wife was not a problem because of their reputation as good wives."
  38. ↑ Chen, Vivienne (9 September 2012). "So, He Likes You Because You're Asian". Huffpost Women.
  39. ↑ Braithwaite, Ann; Orr, Catherine M. (11 August 2016). Everyday Women's and Gender Studies: Introductory Concepts. Taylor & Francis. p. 330. ISBN 978-1-317-28531-1. "Foreign-born Asian American women... were more likely to adhere to traditional gender arrangements in their dating or marriage, while second generation Asian American women who date white men often have more education and/or a higher socioeconomic stratus than their white partners."
  40. ↑ Grabe, Shelly; Hyde, Janet Shibley (July 2006). "Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (4): 622–640. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.622. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 16822170. "For example, several researchers have reported that White women are significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than are their Asian American counterparts (e.g., Akan & Grilo, 1995; Franzoi &Chang, 2002; Mintz & Kashubeck, 1999; Tylka, 2004), whereas others have reported comparable levels of dissatisfaction between the two groups (e.g., Arriaza & Mann, 2001; Cash, Melnyk, &Hrabosky, 2004; Robinson et al., 1996; Siegel, 2002)."
  41. ↑ "America's Racial and Ethnic Divides: Interracial Marriages Eroding Barriers". The Washington Post. November 9, 1998.
  42. ↑ "Table 60. Married Couples by Race and Hispanic Origin of Spouses" Archived January 1, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, December 15, 2010 (Excel table) Archived October 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Detailed data can be found in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, from 1979 to 2011.
  43. 1 2 3 Chou, Rosalind (2012). Asian American Sexual Politics: The Construction of Race, Gender, and Sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 138. ISBN 9781442209244.
  44. ↑ Marrying Out One-in-Seven New U.S. Marriages is Interracial or Interethnic. Archived January 31, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Released June 4, 2010; Revised June 15, 2010
  45. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nemoto, Kumiko (2009). Racing Romance: Love, Power, and Desire among Asian American/White Couples. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813548524.
  46. ↑ Martin, Michel (22 June 2012). "For One Man, She Had to be Pretty and Asian". NPR.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 Kim, Bitna (April 2011). "Asian Female and Caucasian Male Couples: Exploring the Attraction". Pastoral Psychology. 60 (2): 233–244. doi:10.1007/s11089-010-0312-9. S2CID 143478574.
  48. ↑ "Cross-Border Marriages In Sweden". Population Europe. Munich: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  49. ↑ Yiamyut Sutthichaya (28 July 2015). "New trend of young, educated Thai women with farang husbands emerges: researcher". Prachatai English.
  50. ↑ "Human Rights Briefs: Women in Sri Lanka". Refworld. UNHCR. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  51. ↑ Reeves, Peter (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Sri Lankan Diaspora. Editions Didier Millet. p. 157. ISBN 9789814260831.
  52. ↑ Mrutyuanjai Mishra (29 October 2016). "Why are western men marrying Asian women?". Times of India.
  53. ↑ Lin Lean Lim; Nana Oishi (February 1996). International Labour Migration of Asian Women: Distinctive Characteristics and Policy Concerns (PDF) (Report). Geneva: International Labour Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-12. Retrieved 2017-08-12.
  54. ↑ Villapando, Venny (2000). "The Business of Selling Mail Order Brides". In Plott, Michelle; Umansky, Lauri (eds.). Making Sense of Women's Lives: An Introduction to Women's Studies. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 182. ISBN 9780939693535.
  55. ↑ Adrienne Millbank (4 November 1992). Sponsorship of Spouses and Fiancees into Australia (PDF) (Report). Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia: Parliamentary Research Service. ISSN 1037-2938.
  56. ↑ Kotthoff, Helga; Spencer-Oatey, Helen (1 January 2007). Handbook of Intercultural Communication. Walter de Gruyter. p. 345. ISBN 9783110198584. Retrieved 21 August 2017 – via Google Books.
  57. ↑ Abramson, Paul R; Pinkerton, Steven D., eds. (1995). Sexual Nature/Sexual Culture. Chicago Series on Sexuality. University of Chicago Press. p. 309. ISBN 9780226001814.
  58. ↑ Lane, J. (2007). Under the Boards: The Cultural Revolution in Basketball. Book collections on Project MUSE. University of Nebraska Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8032-0755-4. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  59. ↑ Margallo, A.N. (2005). Build Or Perish!: People Power Democracy Liberating America's First Empire : Red's Book. University of Santo Tomas Publishing House. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4116-0541-1. In rap music videos, Asian women are seen as sexual objects as they dance..."
  60. 1 2 3 Ho, F.; Mullen, B.V. (2008). Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Duke University Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-8223-4281-6. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  61. ↑ "De Nederlandse Top 40, week 5, 1990". Retrieved October 28, 2008.
  62. ↑ "Opinion | IN THE NATION; Lyrics and the Law (Published 1990)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2018-07-19.
  63. ↑ "In Rap Group's Album, Graphic Sexual Lyrics (Published 1990)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2018-07-19.
  64. ↑ Bernardi, D. (2007). The Persistence of Whiteness: Race and Contemporary Hollywood Cinema. Taylor & Francis. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-135-97644-6.
  65. ↑ Tran, Marenda (2010). Relationship among adherence to Asian values, sociocultural attitudes toward appearance, and body objectification in Asian American women (Thesis).
  66. ↑ Parmar, Pratihba (2003). "Hateful Contraries: Media Images of Asian Women". In Jones, Amelia (ed.). The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader. Psychology Press. p. 290. ISBN 9780415267052.
  67. ↑ Tajima, Renee E. (1989). "Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed: Images of Asian Women" (PDF). In Asian Women United of California (ed.). Making Waves: An Anthology of Writings By and About Asian American Women. Boston: Beacon Press.
  68. 1 2 Rothman, Emily F. (2021). Pornography and Public Health. Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-007547-7.
  69. ↑ McGahan, Christopher L. (31 October 2013). Racing Cyberculture: Minoritarian Art and Cultural Politics on the Internet. Routledge. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-135-86984-7.
  70. ↑ "When Fetishes Collide". Hyphen. 2005-09-01. Retrieved 2023-09-05. Many prefer trans women who haven't had genital reconstruction surgery, because they find an otherwise female body with a penis sexy. And many trans admirers also actively seek out Asian girls above all others. Many tranny chasers believe that male-born Asians have an easier time appearing convincingly female because of facial features or less body hair. Look on any dating/hookup service for men-for-trans (M4T) posts and you'll find "Asian only" or "Asian preferred" all over the place. The top-selling transsexual porn videos, according to industry trade magazine Adult Video News, depict Asian transwomen"...
  71. ↑ Chou, R.S. (2012). Asian American Sexual Politics: The Construction of Race, Gender, and Sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-4422-0926-8. Retrieved 2023-10-03.
  72. ↑ "2021 Year in Review – Pornhub Insights". www.pornhub.com. December 14, 2021. Retrieved 2022-05-17.
  73. ↑ Gossett, Jennifer Lynn; Byrne, Sarah (2002). ""Click Here": A Content Analysis of Internet Rape Sites". Gender and Society. 16 (5): 698. doi:10.1177/089124302236992. ISSN 0891-2432. JSTOR 3081955. S2CID 39506826. "In contrast to the invisible perpetrator, race/ethnicity is of paramount importance in constructing the image of the victim. In our sample, 34 of the images (pictures that are clear and in which the race can be identified) depicted Asian women. Eleven of the sites advertise Asian women in their text through words such as Asian, Japanese, and Chinese. Nearly half (15) of the sites either a text reference to Asian women or an image of an Asian woman. In no images of Black women being raped were found, although one link to a site that advertises "Black Gang Rape," which is ambiguous as to the victims or the perpetrators are Black. Twenty-four images of white women were found among those where race could be identified."

Further reading

Look up Asiaphile in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.