Bureau of Meteorology weather radars
Radar sites of the network. Indicative radar coverage in 2022. Inner radius (100 km) indicates better coverage. Outer radius (200 km) indicates worse coverage. Note: Does not show coverage degradation from obstructions.
Country of originAustralia
ManufacturerVarious
No. built69
TypeC and S bands

The majority of Australia's weather radars are operated by the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM), an executive agency of the Australian Government. The radar network is continually being upgraded with new technology such as doppler and dual polarisation to provide better now-casting. Doppler weather radars are able to detect the movement of precipitation, making it very useful in detecting damaging winds associated with precipitation,[1] and determining if a thunderstorm has a rotating updraft, a key indicator of the presence of the most dangerous type of thunderstorm, a supercell.[2][3][4]

The new dual polarisation radars give forecasters the ability to:

  • detect debris in the atmosphere, leading to more accurate tornado warnings;[5]
  • distinguish between different precipitation types, leading to better estimations of hail size and severity;[5]
  • better identify areas of heavy rainfall, leading to more accurate flood warnings;[6] and
  • discern between precipitation and non-meteorological echoes such as chaff, birds, and insects.[5]

The dual polarisation transition

The transition to polarimetric (dual-polarised) radars began in 2017 with the upgrade of 4 Meteor 1500 radars located in Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Sydney.[7] The network has further been enhanced through the installation of 8 new polarimetric Meteor 735 radars across WA,[8] NSW[9] & Victoria,[10] and two polarimetric WRM200 radars[11] manufactured by Vaisala, one to replace the radar in Dampier, WA which had been destroyed by severe tropical cyclone Damien in 2020, and one to replace an ageing radar near Gove in the Northern Territory. Six new Meteor 1700s were also installed between 2021 and 2023, 5 located in Qld,[12] and 1 in Perth, WA,[8] all equipped with dual polarisation technology. All the radars with the model name 'Meteor' were manufactured by Selex ES, now Leonardo.

Specifications are available for the Meteor 735, Meteor 1700, and the Vaisala WRM200.

Future radar network upgrades

The BoM has plans[13] [14][15] to:

  • build a new radar in Tennant Creek, NT;
  • build a new radar in the Toowoomba region in SE Qld;
  • replace the radar in Townsville Qld and
  • upgrade the Carnarvon radar in WA to add doppler capabilities.[16]

Notes

  • Model names were found in radar metadata and on the Bureau's website.
  • The number following the hyphen in the radar model name is most likely the diameter of the parabolic dish in feet.
  • As a direct quote from the referenced website, "The WSR81C radar was simply a WF100-5C system rearranged as a remote weather watch radar system. It used the same basic transmitter/receiver/servo/antenna with the linear receiver omitted, and a shepherd's hook horn feed in an 8 foot antenna." and "the Bureau assembled its own remote weather watch [WSR81] radars by using a Rapic Transmitter fitted to a WF100 Transmitter/receiver, servo and a 'MET' only antenna purchased from EEC."[17]
  • Radar beamwidths are not exact.

Australian Capital Territory

The Australian Capital Territory is served by the Captains Flat radar, located in New South Wales.

New South Wales

Weather radars in New South Wales[9][18]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Brewarrina 29°58′S 146°49′E / 29.96°S 146.81°E / -29.96; 146.81 149 Meteor 735 1 250 C Yes Yes Yes
Canberra (Captains Flat) 35°40′S 149°31′E / 35.66°S 149.51°E / -35.66; 149.51 1383 DWSR74S14-13 2 250 S Yes No Yes
Grafton 29°37′S 152°58′E / 29.62°S 152.97°E / -29.62; 152.97 40 WSR74S-14 2 500 S No No No
Hillston 33°33′S 145°31′E / 33.55°S 145.52°E / -33.55; 145.52 144 Meteor 735 1 250 C Yes Yes Yes
Moree 29°30′S 149°51′E / 29.50°S 149.85°E / -29.50; 149.85 220 WF100C-8 1.6 500 C No No No
Namoi (Blackjack Mountain) 31°01′26″S 150°11′29″E / 31.0240°S 150.1915°E / -31.0240; 150.1915 699 DWSR8502S-14 2 250 S Yes No No
Newcastle 32°43′48″S 152°01′37″E / 32.730°S 152.027°E / -32.730; 152.027 84 DWSR74S14-13 2 250 S Yes No Yes
Norfolk Island 29°01′59″S 167°55′59″E / 29.033°S 167.933°E / -29.033; 167.933 ~120 WF100C-8 1.6 C No No No The data from this radar is not in the national radar archive and therefore it's metadata is inaccessible.
Sydney (Terrey Hills) 33°42′04″S 151°12′36″E / 33.701°S 151.210°E / -33.701; 151.210 195 Meteor 1500 1 250 S Yes Yes[7] Yes
Wagga Wagga 35°10′S 147°28′E / 35.17°S 147.47°E / -35.17; 147.47 221 WF100C-8 1.6 500 C No No No
Wollongong (Appin) 34°15′50″S 150°52′26″E / 34.264°S 150.874°E / -34.264; 150.874 449 DWSR8502S-14 2 250 S Yes No Yes
Yeoval 32°44′S 148°42′E / 32.74°S 148.70°E / -32.74; 148.70 487 Meteor 735 1 250 C Yes Yes Yes The radar suffers moderate beam obstruction between approximately 70° and 130° due to an area of elevated terrain, meaning there is an underestimation of rain intensity in the lowest radar tilt between the same bearings.
Kurnell 34°00′53″S 151°13′34″E / 34.014758°S 151.226227°E / -34.014758; 151.226227 64 WSR81C-12 1 250 C Yes No — The Kurnell radar is a backup radar and consequently live radar images are not available. Archived radar data is uploaded here

Northern Territory

Weather radars in Northern Territory[19][20]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Alice Springs 23°49′S 133°54′E / 23.82°S 133.90°E / -23.82; 133.90 545 WF100C-8 1.6 500 C No No No
Darwin (Berrimah) 12°28′S 130°56′E / 12.46°S 130.93°E / -12.46; 130.93 51 Wurrung 2502C 1 250 C Yes No No
Darwin Airport 12°25′29″S 130°53′31″E / 12.4247°S 130.8919°E / -12.4247; 130.8919 38 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 250 C Yes No No
Gove 12°17′S 136°49′E / 12.28°S 136.82°E / -12.28; 136.82 61 WRM 200 1 250 C Yes Yes No The WRM200 radar system replaced an aging WF100 radar in July 2023.
Katherine (Tindal) 14°31′S 132°27′E / 14.51°S 132.45°E / -14.51; 132.45 131 WSR81C-8 1.6 500 C No No No
Warruwi 11°38′58″S 133°22′48″E / 11.6494°S 133.38°E / -11.6494; 133.38 43 Wurrung 2502C 1 250 C Yes No No

Queensland

Weather radars in Queensland[12][21]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Bowen 19°53′S 148°05′E / 19.88°S 148.08°E / -19.88; 148.08 WF100C-8 1.6 500 C No No No
Brisbane Airport 27°23′S 153°08′E / 27.39°S 153.13°E / -27.39; 153.13 MeteoPress C 1.7 250 C Yes[22] Yes No Doppler and dual-polarized measurements aren't publicly available due to quality control issues.
Brisbane (Mt Stapylton) 27°43′05″S 153°14′24″E / 27.718°S 153.240°E / -27.718; 153.240 Meteor 1500 1 250 S Yes Yes [7] Yes
Cairns 16°49′S 145°41′E / 16.82°S 145.68°E / -16.82; 145.68 Wurrung 2502C 1 250 C Yes No No The signal processor was upgraded in August 2023.
Emerald 23°32′58″S 148°14′21″E / 23.5494°S 148.2392°E / -23.5494; 148.2392 DWSR 8502 2 S Yes No No
Gladstone 23°52′S 151°16′E / 23.86°S 151.26°E / -23.86; 151.26 WSR-74 2 S No No No
Greenvale 18°59′S 144°59′E / 18.99°S 144.99°E / -18.99; 144.99 Meteor 1700 1 S Yes Yes Yes
Gympie (Mt Kanigan) 25°57′25″S 152°34′37″E / 25.957°S 152.577°E / -25.957; 152.577 DWSR 8502 2 S Yes No Yes
Longreach 23°26′S 144°17′E / 23.43°S 144.29°E / -23.43; 144.29 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No No
Mackay 21°07′S 149°13′E / 21.12°S 149.22°E / -21.12; 149.22 42 Meteor 1700 1 250 S Yes Yes No The Mackay radar was offline from 1 June 2023 to 11 December 2023 while the site was demolished and a new radar was constructed.[23]
Marburg 27°37′S 152°32′E / 27.61°S 152.54°E / -27.61; 152.54 370 Meteor 1700 1 250 S Yes Yes No In November 2023, a new Meteor-1700 radar replaced an ageing WSR-74.[24] The new radar has greatly improved image quality but suffers beam blockage on the tilts 0.6° and 0.83° West to South West of the radar, leading to a significant under-representation of reflectivity values between those bearings.
Mornington Island 16°40′S 139°10′E / 16.67°S 139.17°E / -16.67; 139.17 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No No
Mount Isa 20°42′41″S 139°33′19″E / 20.7114°S 139.5553°E / -20.7114; 139.5553 DWSR 8502 2 S Yes No Yes
Richmond 20°45′S 143°08′E / 20.75°S 143.14°E / -20.75; 143.14 Meteor 1700 1 S Yes Yes[25] Yes
Taroom 25°41′46″S 149°53′53″E / 25.696°S 149.898°E / -25.696; 149.898 Meteor 1700 1 S Yes Yes[26] Yes
Townsville (Hervey Range) 19°25′S 146°33′E / 19.42°S 146.55°E / -19.42; 146.55 DWSR 2502 1 C Yes No No This radar will be replaced with a new Meteor 1700 S band radar in 2024.
Warrego 26°26′S 147°21′E / 26.44°S 147.35°E / -26.44; 147.35 TVDR 2500 1.6 C No No No
Weipa 12°40′S 141°55′E / 12.67°S 141.92°E / -12.67; 141.92 Wurrung 2502C 1 C Yes No No
Willis Island 16°17′17″S 149°57′54″E / 16.288°S 149.965°E / -16.288; 149.965 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No No

South Australia

Weather radars in South Australia[27][28]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Adelaide (Buckland Park) 34°37′01″S 138°28′08″E / 34.617°S 138.469°E / -34.617; 138.469 Meteor 1500 1 250 S Yes Yes[7] Yes
Adelaide (Sellicks Hill) 35°20′S 138°30′E / 35.33°S 138.50°E / -35.33; 138.50 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No Yes
Ceduna 32°08′S 133°42′E / 32.13°S 133.70°E / -32.13; 133.70 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Mt Gambier 37°45′S 140°46′E / 37.75°S 140.77°E / -37.75; 140.77 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No No
Woomera 31°10′S 136°48′E / 31.16°S 136.80°E / -31.16; 136.80 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No No

Tasmania

Weather radars in Tasmania[29][30]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Hobart (Mt Koonya) 43°06′44″S 147°48′22″E / 43.1122°S 147.8061°E / -43.1122; 147.8061 Wurrung 2502C 1 C Yes No Yes
Hobart Airport 42°50′S 147°31′E / 42.83°S 147.51°E / -42.83; 147.51 WF 100C-6 2 C No No No
N.W. Tasmania (West Takone) 41°10′52″S 145°34′44″E / 41.181°S 145.579°E / -41.181; 145.579 Wurrung 2502C 1 C Yes No Yes

Victoria

Weather radar in Victoria[10][31]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Bairnsdale 37°53′S 147°34′E / 37.89°S 147.56°E / -37.89; 147.56 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No No
Melbourne 37°52′S 144°46′E / 37.86°S 144.76°E / -37.86; 144.76 Meteor 1500 1 S Yes Yes[7] Yes
Melbourne (Broadmeadows) 37°51′19″S 144°45′19″E / 37.8553°S 144.7554°E / -37.8553; 144.7554 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Mildura 34°17′S 141°35′E / 34.28°S 141.59°E / -34.28; 141.59 Meteor 735 1 C Yes Yes Yes
Rainbow 35°59′S 142°01′E / 35.99°S 142.01°E / -35.99; 142.01 Meteor 735 1 C Yes Yes Yes
Yarrawonga 36°02′S 146°02′E / 36.03°S 146.03°E / -36.03; 146.03 WSR 81C 1 C Yes No No

Western Australia

Weather radars in Western Australia[8][32]
Name Location Elevation (metres) Model Name Beamwidth (degrees) Range Resolution (metres) IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Rainfall Accumulations Notes
Albany 34°56′S 117°48′E / 34.94°S 117.80°E / -34.94; 117.80 Meteor 735 1 C Yes Yes Yes
Broome 17°57′S 122°14′E / 17.95°S 122.23°E / -17.95; 122.23 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Carnavon 24°53′S 113°40′E / 24.88°S 113.67°E / -24.88; 113.67 DWSR 2502 1.6 C No No No
Dampier 20°39′S 116°41′E / 20.65°S 116.69°E / -20.65; 116.69 WRM 200 1 C Yes Yes[33][11] Yes
Esperance 33°50′S 121°53′E / 33.83°S 121.89°E / -33.83; 121.89 Meteor 735 1 C Yes Yes Yes
Geraldton 28°48′S 114°42′E / 28.80°S 114.70°E / -28.80; 114.70 Meteor 735 1 C Yes Yes Yes
Giles 25°02′S 128°18′E / 25.03°S 128.30°E / -25.03; 128.30 WF 100C-6 2 C No No No
Halls Creek 18°14′S 127°40′E / 18.23°S 127.66°E / -18.23; 127.66 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C No No No
Kalgoorlie 30°47′S 121°27′E / 30.79°S 121.45°E / -30.79; 121.45 Wurrung 2502C 1 C Yes No Yes
Learmonth 22°06′S 114°00′E / 22.10°S 114.00°E / -22.10; 114.00 TVDR 2500 1.6 C No No No
Newdegate 33°05′49″S 119°00′32″E / 33.097°S 119.009°E / -33.097; 119.009 Wurrung 2500C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Perth (Serpentine) 32°23′30″S 115°52′01″E / 32.391746°S 115.867036°E / -32.391746; 115.867036 Meteor 1700 1 S Yes Yes Yes
Perth Airport 31°56′S 115°59′E / 31.93°S 115.98°E / -31.93; 115.98 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C No No No
Port Hedland 20°22′S 118°38′E / 20.37°S 118.63°E / -20.37; 118.63 TVDR 2500 1.6 C No No No
South Doodlakine 31°47′S 117°57′E / 31.78°S 117.95°E / -31.78; 117.95 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Watheroo 30°22′S 116°17′E / 30.36°S 116.29°E / -30.36; 116.29 Wurrung 2502C 1.6 C Yes No Yes
Wyndham 15°27′S 128°07′E / 15.45°S 128.12°E / -15.45; 128.12 WF 100C-8 1.6 C No No No

Research Radars

Note:

  • Whilst the BoM may/may not own these radars, they are involved with the radars for research applications.
Research radars[34]
Name Location Elevation Operational status Radar model IEEE Frequency Band Doppler Dual Pol Notes
CPOL 12°14′42″S 131°02′42″E / 12.245°S 131.045°E / -12.245; 131.045 50m Inactive (6/12/1998 - 2/5/2017) N/A C Yes Yes The data which CPOL has collected is used to study the microphysical and dynamic properties of thunderstorm convection in Darwin, Australia, enabling the improvement of atmospheric models' representations of the convection formed during the pre-monsoon buildup and active monsoon.[35][36]
CP2 27°40′08″S 152°51′46″E / 27.6689°S 152.8627°E / -27.6689; 152.8627 185.5m Inactive (1/11/2007 - 1/6/2015) N/A S & X Yes Yes The CP2 Research radar was a 1970's era radar, which the BoM received as a gift from the NCAR in the United States. The BoM retrofitted it with modern parts which gave it the unique ability to collect data at two frequencies, S and X band. The upgrades also provided state of the art dual polarisation and doppler technologies. The CP in its title stands for cloud physics, and the radar has been used to research thunderstorms, drive improvements in rainfall measurements and hail detection and explore the potential for cloud seeding. [37]
Ocean Pol N/A (Mobile radar) 22m Active (22/3/2015-) N/A C Yes Yes This research radar is installed on the RV Investigator, an ocean research vessel. The radar collects data on research voyages, including trips to Antarctic waters, Heard Island and circumnavigations of Australia. [38]
UQXPOL[39] N/A (Mobile radar) N/A Active (14/10/2014-) Furuno WR-2100 X Yes Yes This research radar is operated by the University of Queensland and has been involved with research to improve hail detection and hail size prediction algorithms,[40] and also with research into bushfires and pyroconvection as part of a $1 million google.org philanthropic venture.[41][42]
Monash University x-band N/A (Mobile radar) N/A Active Meteor 60DX X Yes Yes

References

  1. ↑ "Severe Weather 101: Detecting Damaging Winds". NSSL. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  2. ↑ "Severe thunderstorms". BoM. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
  3. ↑ Lemon, Leslie R.; Ralph J. Donaldson; Donald W. Burgess; Rodger A. Brown (1977). "Doppler Radar Application to Severe Thunderstorm Study and Potential Real-Time Warning". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. American Meteorological Society. 58 (11): 1187–1193. Bibcode:1977BAMS...58.1187L. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1977)058<1187:DRATST>2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 26218232. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  4. ↑ "Supercell Structure and Dynamics". NWS. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  5. 1 2 3 "Dual-Pol Applications". NSSL. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  6. ↑ Luciana K. Cunha; James A. Smith; Mary Lynn Baeck; Witold F. Krajewski (2013). "An Early Performance Evaluation of the NEXRAD Dual-Polarization Radar Rainfall Estimates for Urban Flood Applications". Weather and Forecasting. 28 (6): 1478–1497. Bibcode:2013WtFor..28.1478C. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-13-00046.1. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Alain Protat. "Radar Science and Nowcasting Dual-pol Radar Plans at the Bureau" (PDF). Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  8. 1 2 3 "Western Australia Information". Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  9. 1 2 "New South Wales Information". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  10. 1 2 "Victorian Information". Archived from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  11. 1 2 Soderholm, Joshua; Protat, A.; Jakob, C. (2017). "Operation Weather Radar Network Archive (Australia)". NCI THREDDS. Monash University, National Computational Infrastructure, and Australian Bureau of Meteorology. doi:10.25914/5cb686a8d9450. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  12. 1 2 "Queensland Information". BoM. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  13. ↑ "Project details for sites across Australia". BoM. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  14. ↑ "Replacing radars for a more resilient network". BoM. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  15. ↑ "Increasing radar coverage across Australia". BoM. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  16. ↑ "Radar Upgrades". BoM. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
  17. ↑ Edwards, Harvey. "WF100 (& WSR81C)". Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  18. ↑ "NSW Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  19. ↑ "Northern Territory Information". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  20. ↑ "NT Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  21. ↑ "QLD Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  22. ↑ "C-Band Solid-State Radar" (PDF). Meteopress. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  23. ↑ "Mackay Radar Now Live". Media Release-Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  24. ↑ "Brisbane's Upgraded Marburg Radar Now Live". Media Release-Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  25. ↑ "New weather radar at Richmond supports North Queensland communities and industry". BoM. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  26. ↑ "COVID-19 restrictions and floods delay delivery of Taroom weather radar". Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  27. ↑ "South Australia Information". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  28. ↑ "SA Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  29. ↑ "Tasmania Information". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  30. ↑ "TAS Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  31. ↑ "VIC Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  32. ↑ "WA Radar Sites Table". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  33. ↑ "Weather Radar WRM200". Vaisala. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  34. ↑ "Dataset: Level 1: Radar Volumes/radar_site_list_research.csv". NCI Thredds. National Computational Infrastructure, Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 21 April 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  35. ↑ "CPOL". ARM. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  36. ↑ "CPOL Research Radar". Openradar. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  37. ↑ "Redbank Plains research radar". BoM. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  38. ↑ "Ocean Pol Research Radar". Australian Unified Radar Archive. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  39. ↑ Nicholas McCarthy; Hamish McGowan; Adrien Guyot; Andrew Dowdy. "MOBILE X-POL RADAR A New Tool for Investigating Pyroconvection and Associated Wildfire Meteorology" (PDF). Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  40. ↑ Dr Joshua Soderholm; Prof Hamish McGowan; Dr Matthew Mason. "Storm Hazards Testbed" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  41. ↑ Ralic, Marija. "The Google.org grantee using AI to detect bushfire risks". Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  42. ↑ McCarthy, Nicholas; McGowan, Hamish; Guyot, Adrien; Dowdy, Andrew (2018). "Mobile X-pol radar: a new tool for investigating pyroconvection and associated wildfire meteorology". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 99 (6): 1177–1195. Bibcode:2018BAMS...99.1177M. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0118.1. S2CID 85512739. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2023.

See also

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