Big wall climbing is a form of rock climbing that takes place on long multi-pitch routes (of at least 6–10 pitches or 300–500 metres) that normally require a full day, if not several days, to ascend. Big wall routes are typically sustained and exposed, where the climbers remain suspended from the rock face, even sleeping hanging from the face, with limited options to sit down or escape unless they abseil back down the whole route (a complex and risky action). It is therefore a physically and mentally demanding form of climbing.

Big wall climbing is typically done in pairs in a traditional climbing format, but with the distinction that the non-lead climber usually ascends by jumaring up a fixed rope to save time and energy. It requires an extensive range of supplies and equipment over and above that of traditional climbing that is carried in haul bags, including portaledges, aid climbing equipment, poop tubes, and food and water. It requires additional techniques such as pendulums/tension traversing, aid climbing, using trail ropes, jumaring, and sometimes simul climbing.

Big wall climbing began in the Dolomites with early pioneers such as Emilio Comici inventing many of the first techniques and tools in the 1930s, and then spreading throughout the entire European Alps by climbers such as Riccardo Cassin and Walter Bonatti with his milestone solo ascent of the Dru in 1955. From the 1960s, American climbers led by Royal Robbins developed Yosemite into the most important big wall climbing venue in the world, with Lynn Hill's 1993 first free ascent of The Nose at 5.14a (8b+) on El Capitan being an important milestone in big wall history. Major high-altitude big-walls have been scaled in Patagonia and in the Himalayas.

Description

Big wall climbing is rock climbing on large routes that often take a full day, if not several days, of continuous climbing to ascend. Big wall climbing is a form of multi-pitch climbing but there is no definition of how many pitches are needed for a route to be a big wall ; a minimum of at least 6–10 pitches (or roughly 300–500 metres) is typically required. Big wall climbing is usually done in pairs as lead climbing, however, due to the length of the climbs, the second climber usually ascends via a fixed rope to save energy and time.[1][2]

Big wall climbing can be performed as free climbing, however, it is common for big wall climbers to use some level of aid climbing on the route, as it is often impossible for very large multi-pitch routes to have a uniform level of difficulty (i.e. there may be some particularly difficult sections that are well beyond the difficulties of the rest of the route).[3] Most big wall routes require traditional climbing techniques for climbing protection however some routes have bolted sections (or pitons) like sport climbing routes. Big wall routes have also been free solo climbed.[1][2]

Big wall routes are typically sustained and exposed, where the climbers will be required to remain suspended on the rock wall during their entire ascent, with limited availability to sit down (e.g. few large ledges), or to escape from the wall other than by abseiling back down the entire route (which can be itself a risky process). Big wall climbing is therefore considered a more serious undertaking than even multi-pitch climbing, and climbers will generally only attempt big wall routes at grades that they can easily manage as multi-pitch routes.[1][2]

The duration and sustained exposure of big wall climbs require a significant increase in equipment and in equipment-handling skills, over and above what is required for multi-pitch routes. Big wall climbers need to be able to haul gear and supplies up the route as they climb (using pulleys and haul bags), ascend on fixed ropes (the non-leading climber), build major anchor points (for hanging belays), hammer-in bolts and pitons as required, and set up portaledges for resting and sleeping. Given the length of the routes, this must happen efficiently.[1][2]

Notable walls

Notable big walls
Tre Cime di Lavaredo
Petit Dru
El Capitan
Great Trango Tower
Cordillera Paine
Cerro Torre

In determining what is a "big wall", there is not only debate about the height requirements but also on whether it includes alpine climbs such as the north faces of the Eiger and the Matterhorn, which also have a lot of snow and ice.[4] Regardless, a number of walls are considered particularly notable in the development of big-wall climbing:[5][4][6]

  • Tre Cime di Lavaredo, Dolomites. The Dolomites were the birthplace of big wall climbing where many important early tools and techniques were developed, and the scene of many milestones by pioneers such as Emilio Comici and Riccardo Cassin,[5] and modern milestones in big wall free and solo climbing by Alexander Huber.[4][5]
  • Petit Dru, Mont Blanc Massif. An important big wall in the heart of one of Europe's most important alpine climbing venues (i.e. the Dru is surrounded by many notable rock and ice alpine climbing routes); the Dru was the scene of several milestones in big-wall climbing and most notably, Walter Bonatti's groundbreaking 1955 solo ascent of the eponymous Bonatti Pillar, and Catherine Destivelle's 1991 solo of the eponymous Voie Destivelle.[4][5]
  • El Capitan and Half Dome, Yosemite. The world's most famous big wall venue,[2] and where many techniques, tools, and grade milestones were developed in big wall climbing by pioneers such as Royal Robbins and Warren Harding in the 1960s and 1970s; Lynn Hill's 1993 first free ascent of The Nose was one of the greatest milestones in big wall climbing; Tommy Caldwell's 2015 milestone in freeing the Dawn Wall, and Alex Honnold's 2017 milestone in big wall free soloing attracted global attention.[7][4][5]
  • Trango Towers, Karakoram. The Great Trango Tower's east face and east buttress form the world's longest big wall climbs;[8] in the mid-1970s, the group was the birthplace of high-altitude big wall climbing;[5] the towers, including the adjoining Nameless Tower, are considered formidable and dangerous due to their extreme altitude,[4] and include famous big wall routes such as Eternal Flame (650-metres, 24-pitches, VI 5.13a), and The Grand Voyage (1,340-metres, 33-pitches, VII 5.10 A4+), one of the world's largest.[9][10]
  • Mount Asgard and Mount Thor, Baffin Island. In the early 1970s, British big wall climber Doug Scott highlighted the enormous range and scale of big wall climbing possibilities on Baffin Island, and it has been a focus of big wall climbers ever since.[2][5][11][4]
  • Cordillera Paine, Chilean Patagonia. Developed by British and Italian climbers in the early 1960s, the windswept towers have been a continuous venue for big wall climbing with the world's leading big wall climbers still trying to fully free the famous 1991 partially-aided route by Wolfgang Gullich and Kurt Albert, Riders on the Storm (VI, 5.13/7c+, A3).[4][12]
  • Cerro Torre and Fitz Roy, Patagonia. Cerro Torre is one of the most iconic big walls but also one of the most controversial as a result of Cesare Maestri's dubious 1959 ascent (disproven in 2015),[13] and his 1970 densely-bolted Compressor Route (bolts removed in 2012); its neighbour Fitz Roy also has iconic big wall routes, and both have attracted climbers doing grand-traverses (or enchainments) of their multiple towers.[4][5]
  • Ulvetanna Peak, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. Considered the "last frontier" in big wall climbing and its huge rock faces have attracted the continuous attention of some of the world's best contemporary big wall climbers who continue to develop new routes in the location.[2][4][14]

In addition to the above big walls, a number of other locations are regarded as having impressive big walls that are climbed. However, their level of challenge (sometimes due to the variable or poor quality of the rock) has not been as notable in the development of big wall climbing; they include Troll Wall (Norway), Cerro Autana (Venezuela), Naranjo de Bulnes (Spain),[14] Tsaratanana Massif (Madagascar),[14] Potrero Chico (Mexico), Ketil (Greenland), and Notch Peak and The Streaked Wall (Utah).[4][5][14]

History

Climber on the famous big wall climb Cassin Route on Piz Badile, which is 850-metres, 25-pitches, and graded TD (IFAS), 5.9 (American), 5c (French), VI- (UIAA), IV (NCCS).

One of the earliest examples of "big wall climbing" dates from 1887 when a 17-year-old Georg Winkler free soloed the Vajolet Towers in the Dolomites.[15] The Dolomites were the birthplace of big wall climbing, and where pioneer Emilio Comici invented many big wall techniques such as aid climbing with multi-step aiders, hanging belays and bivouacs, advanced rope maneuvers, and leading with a trail rope. In 1933, Comici climbed the overhanging north face of the Cima Grande, then the world's hardest big wall route. Other pioneers such as Riccardo Cassin, himself a leading alpinist, created even harder new routes and spread big wall techniques across the Alps.[5] In 1955, Walter Bonatti ushered in modern big wall climbing with his six-day solo ascent of a new route on the southwest pillar of the Petit Dru, still considered one of the greatest and most important big wall climbs of all time.[5][16]

In 1957, a team led by Royal Robbins climbed the Northwest Face of Half Dome in Yosemite, ushering in modern American big wall climbing.[7] In 1958, a team led by Warren Harding aid climbed The Nose on El Capitan using siege tactics (600 pitons and 125 bolts) over 47 days; while the ascent got worldwide recognition it was controversial due to the excessive use of aid.[7] Robbins' ethos of minimizing the use of aid prevailed over that of Harding, and his legacy of partially aided ascents including the Salathé Wall (1961), the North American Wall (1964), and the Muir Wall (1968) cemented Yosemite, and the granite walls of El Capitan, as the world's most important big wall climbing venue, and Robbins' own place in big wall history.[16][17]

The development of big wall techniques and tools in the European Alps and in Yosemite led to a worldwide search for new big walls. In 1963, a team led by Chris Bonington established the first big wall routes on the Cordillera Paine, Chilean Patagonia, followed closely by new Italian-led routes. In 1972, Doug Scott, and later Charlie Porter, developed big wall routes on Mount Asgard, and highlighted the enormous big wall potential of Baffin Island.[11] In 1976, a British team led by Joe Brown ascended one of the first-ever high-altitude big wall routes with the granite Trango (Nameless) Tower in the Karakoram,[5] which was followed in 1992 by the two-man team of John Middendorf and Xaver Bongard who ascended the east buttress of the neighboring Great Trango Tower, putting up The Grand Voyage (1,340-metres, 33-pitches, VII 5.10 A4+), one of the longest big wall routes in the world.[8]

From the late 1980s, leading sport climbers began to fully free-climb major big wall routes, and establish new testpieces. In 1988, Todd Skinner and Paul Piana freed the Salathe Wall on El Capitan at 5.13b (8a).[7][16] In 1989, Wolfgang Gullich, with others, established the mega-route Eternal Flame on Nameless Tower (fully freed by the Hubers in 2009),[16] and in 1991, created Riders on the Storm on the Torres del Paine.[16] In 1993, Lynn Hill claimed one of the greatest prizes in big wall climbing by freeing The Nose on El Capitan at 5.14a (8b+).[7][16] In 2001, Alexander Huber freed Bellavista on the Cima Ovest at 8c (5.14b).[16] In 2015, Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson freed Dawn Wall on El Capitan at 5.14d (9a).[7][16] During this era, new milestones were also set in big-wall free solo climbing by Alexander Huber, with Brandler-Hasse Direttissima on the Cima Grande in 2012 at 7a+ (5.12a), by Hansjörg Auer, with Fish Route on the Marmolada in 2007 at 7b+ (5.12c), and by Alex Honnold with Freerider on El Capitan in 2017 at 7c+ (5.13a).[16]

Equipment

Equipment used on big wall climbs
Haul bag
Portaledge
Static fixed rope
Anchor points

Big wall climbing requires all of the equipment used in traditional climbing and multi-pitch climbing (but in greater volume as the pitches are of fuller length), as well as specific additional items that are needed for extended multi-day muti-pitch big wall routes, including:[3][18][19]

  • Haul bags. Given the level of equipment and supplies needed, heavy-duty haul bags (including stuff sacks and rope bags) are used extensively in big wall climbing; self-locking rope capture pulleys are used for hauling up these haul bags on static/tag rope lines.[3][18][19]
  • Aid climbing equipment. Many big wall climbers carry a basic set of aid climbing equipment including aiders, daisy chanins, pitons (and also angles, knifeblades, copperheads and even bolt kits), a hammer, hooks, prusiks, and a chest harness/gear sling.[3][18][19]
  • Fixed or static rope systems. A distinctive aspect of big wall climbing is the additional static fixed rope (or tag-line) that is used by the non-lead climber to ascend the route (using ascenders), and by both climbers to haul up their equipment in haul bags; a longer 60–70-metre (200–230 ft) length rope is standard for big walls.[3][18][19]
  • Anchor, belay, and abseil systems. The sustained nature of big wall climbs places more onus on the skills of creating secure and safe anchor points (e.g. for the portledge), belaying over long pitch lengths (often meriting a bosun's chair and grigris), and setting up long and complex abseils (e.g. for any need to retreat).[3][18][19]
  • Portaledges and poop tubes. For overnight stays, portaledges are used (including rain shields), as well as bivy bags and sleeping bags. Poop tubes are used for capturing human waste, which is disposed of on completion.[18][19]
  • Food and water. Water is one of the heaviest elements the climbers have to carry, and big wall climbs typically require circa 3-4 liters per day per person to be hauled along the route (mistakes due to dehydration in the sustained and serious environment of big wall climbing can have serious outcomes); in addition, climbers will also need food/energy provisions to sustain them for the ascent.[3][18][19]
  • Other clothing. As the climbers are spending long days (and potentially nights) on the route, they will need some basic rain gear and warm jackets; big wall climbers also use kneepads and fingerless gloves (and duct tape) to protect their skin during the extended climbing.[3][18][19]

Techniques

While the essence of big wall climbing is that of traditional climbing, and particularly multi-pitch climbing, it also uses a number of specific techniques that are important in being able to meet the unique challenges of ascending big wall routes, which include the following:[3][20]

Traversing, El Capitan.
  • Traverse pitches. Some big wall routes will require a horizontal traverse, beyond a pendulum, to get to the next crack system; traverse pitches place additional strains on the non-leading climber as they cannot use fixed rope techniques to quickly follow on the lead climber, and almost have to re-lead the climb, albeit with the protection pre-placed. The 2017 film Dawn Wall features an extremely difficult big wall traverse.[3][20]
  • Trail ropes. An aspect of big wall climbing is the lead climber's use of an additional "trail rope" (often a static rope) that they trail behind them as they ascend; it allows the lead and belayer to pass equipment on the climb (i.e. pieces of aid gear). Once the lead climber has reached the top of the pitch, they anchor their dynamic lead rope allowing the belayer to jumar up the lead rope, and focus on hauling up equipment on the trail rope.[3][20]
  • Tension traverses and pendulums. Many big wall routes do not have crack systems (or other faults which can be used by climbers) that follow from the ground to the summit. Climbers use pendulums and tension traverses (i.e. a half-pendulum that uses rope tension for aid) to move between such crack systems.[3][20] One of the most notable is King Swing, 100-foot swing from Boot Flake to Eagle Ledge on the Nose (VI 5.9 C2) of El Capitan.[21][22]
Ascending a fixed rope, Fitz Roy.
  • Fixed rope jumaring. Another aspect is that the belayer is not themselves belayed as they ascend the route (i.e. like in a normal lead climbing format). Due to the length of the routes and the need to conserve energy and move quickly, the lead climber will anchor the dynamic lead rope after finishing the pitch, allowing the belayer to jumar up the lead rope (cleaning out the protection en route) using ascenders or top rope soloing.[3][20][23]
Aid climbing, El Capitan.
  • Aid climbing techniques. Even in the era of free climbing, the use of some aid is common in big wall climbing; the scale of the routes means that sections may have difficulties that are way beyond the general route;[3] in addition, abseil retreat from big wall routes is serious and complex (particularly with pendulums and traverses), and climbers will therefore use aid to maintain upward momentum (also called French free climbing).[3][20]
  • Simul climbing techniques. Big wall climbing places great physical strains on the climbers, particularly if the route takes a number of days. To speed up the ascent, some climbers use simul climbing techniques where both climbers (lead and belayer) move simultaneously up the route without any need to use pitches. Simul climbing techniques are complex and require significant coordination and trust between the climbers.[3][20]

Grading

Big wall climbing is used exclusively in relation to rock climbing. Long rock climbing routes that also have ice or snow, are referred to as alpine climbing. There is overlap in the skill sets, and many famous alpinists such as Walter Bonatti, Catherine Destivelle, and Alexander Huber, were also big wall climbers. The most common grading systems used in big wall climbing are the French, American (also known as the Yosemite Decimal System), and to a lesser extent the UIAA rock climbing grades for free climbing; the A-grade or C-grade systems are used for sections of aid climbing.[24][25]

In addition to the above rock climbing grades (for both free climbing and for aid climbing), a National Climbing Classification System (NCCS) grade is sometimes quoted on North American big-wall (and alpine) climbs, that are described by the American Alpine Club (republished in 2013) as follows: "North American NCCS grades, often called "commitment grades", indicate the time investment in a route for an "average" climbing team":[26][27]

  • I and II: "Half a day or less for the technical (5th [i.e. Yosemite Decimal System grade] class) portion of the route".[26][27] Often listed as "1–3 hours" (for grade I), and "3–5 hours" (for grade II).[24]
  • III: "Most of a day of roped climbing".[26][27] Often listed as "5–8 hours".[24]
  • IV: "A full day of technical climbing".[26][27] Often listed as "a full day".[24]
  • V: "Typically requires an overnight on the route, or done fast and free in a day".[26][27] Often listed as "one very long day or two full days".[24]
  • VI: "Two or more days of hard climbing".[26][27] Often listed as "two days to a week".[24]
  • VII: "Remote walls climbed in alpine style".[26][27] Often listed as "more than a week in extreme conditions".[24]

Because of the great length of big-wall routes, detailed topos are usually provided outlining the grades on each pitch, and the aid climbing versus free climbing options at key sections. For example, one of the most famous big wall routes is the 31-pitch 870-metre route The Nose, on El Capitan, which is graded VI 5.9 C2 as a partial aid climb (mainly due to its roof section), but which is graded VI 5.14a (8b+) if climbed completely free.[24]

Evolution of grade milestones

The following big wall free climbing redpoints (i.e. no aid) are notable in the evolution of big wall climbing grade milestones and standards from being a skill used in alpine climbing to a standalone sport in its own right; some are at the borderline of being multi-pitch rather than big wall climbs:[16]

Redpointed

Climbers on the roof of Pan Aroma (and Bellavista) 8c (5.14b) on the Cima Ovest in the Dolomites.
  • 2015: The Dawn Wall (1,000-metres, 32-pitches), El Capitan. First-ever big wall redpoint at 9a (5.14d), by Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson; 19 days.[28][29] Repeated in 2016 by Adam Ondra; 8 days.[30][31]
  • 2001: Bellavista (500-metres, 10-pitches), Cima Ovest. First-ever big wall redpoint at 8c (5.14b), by Alexander Huber;[32] repeating it in 2007 to create Pan Aroma 8c, Huber found key holds "treated" from a 2005 attempt, and the crux was lined with pegs, which softened grade to 8b/8b+.[33][34]
  • 1993: The Nose (870-metres, 31-pitches), El Capitan. Second-ever big wall free climb at 5.14a (8b+), by Lynn Hill (partnered by Brooke Sandahl); it is considered as one of the most important ascents in rock climbing history, and a major milestone in both female and big wall rock climbing;[7] in 1994, Hill repeated it in under 24 hours, and it took over a decade for the second free climb of the route to happen.[7][35]
  • 1991: Neverending Story (450-metres, 11-pitches), 7th Kirlichspitze, Rätikon. First big wall free climb at 8b+ (5.14a), by Beat Kammerlander.[36]
  • 1989: New Age (150-metres, 5-pitches), 7th Kirlichspitze, Rätikon. First multi-pitch/big wall free climb at 8a+ (5.13c), by Beat Kammerlander.[36]
  • 1988: Salathé Wall (870-metres, 35-pitches), El Capitan. First big wall free climb at 8a (5.13b), by Todd Skinner and Paul Piana, and the first free climb of a Yosemite big wall route.[7][37]
  • 1988: Via Acacia (330-metres, 9-pitches), 5th Kirlichspitze, Rätikon, Switzerland. First big wall free climb at 7c+ (5.13a), by Martin Scheel.[36]
  • 1984: Amarcord (400-metres, 9-pitches), 7th Kirlichspitze, Rätikon. First big wall free climb at 7b+ (5.12c), by Martin Scheel.[36]

Free-soloed

High altitude and expedition

A number of big wall-free climbs are notable for their high altitude or the remoteness of the expedition:

In film

A number of notable films have been made focused on big wall climbing including:[46]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Big wall climbing.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Synott, Mark (23 February 2022). "Everything You Need to Know for Your First Big Wall". Climbing. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bishart, Andrew (20 December 2017). "What Is Big-Wall Climbing?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on March 5, 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 The Mountaineers (2018). "Chapter 15. Aid and Big Wall Climbing". Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (9th ed.). Quiller Publishing. p. 276. ISBN 978-1846892622.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ogden, Jared (2005). "Chapter 1: Fundamentals". Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique (1st ed.). Mountaineers Books. pp. 11–16. ISBN 978-0898867480.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Middendorf, John (1999). "The Mechanical Advantage". Ascent Magazine. Climbing. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  6. ↑
    • Elli, Fabio; Zabrok, Peter (2019). "Appendix A: Bitchin' Places to Climb". Hooking Up – The Ultimate Big Wall and Aid Climbing Manual (1st ed.). Versante Sud. pp. 619–664. ISBN 978-8885475809.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Editorial (1 June 2016). "The 25 Greatest Moments in Yosemite Climbing History". Outside. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  8. 1 2 Lucas, James (16 August 2016). "Great Trango Tower: The Biggest Big Wall". Climbing. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  9. 1 2 "Eternal Flame, Nameless Tower, first free ascent by Huber brothers". PlanetMountain. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
  10. 1 2 Lambert, Erik (1 October 2009). "Hubers Redpoint Eternal Flame". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
  11. 1 2 Wright, Cedar (2002). "Holy Baffman: Speed climbing Mt. Asgard's Scott and Porter routes, Baffin Island". American Alpine Journal. 44 (76): 126–133.
  12. ↑ "Riders on the Storm". PlanetMountain. planetmountain.com. 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  13. ↑ Cordes, Kelly (21 February 2015). "Mountaineering's Greatest Climb Unravels". New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Cooper, Tarquin (25 April 2018). "7 epic big walls to climb". Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  15. ↑ Zhu, Beifeng; Chen, Ruizhi; Li, Yuan (9 August 2021). "The Origin and Early Evolution of Rock Climbing". Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Proceedings of the 2021 5th International Seminar on Education, Management and Social Sciences (ISEMSS 2021). Atlantis Press. 571: 662–667. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.210806.124. ISBN 978-94-6239-414-8.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "100 Years of Big-Wall Free Climbing". Gripped Magazine. 4 January 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  17. ↑ Van Leuven, Chris (21 March 2017). "Royal Robbins: The Kingpin of Yosemite's Golden Age". Climbing. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ellison, Julie (16 December 2013). "Big Wall Kit". Climbing. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ogden, Jared (2005). "Chapter 1: Fundamentals". Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique (1st ed.). Mountaineers Books. pp. 16–56. ISBN 978-0898867480.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ogden, Jared (2005). "Chapter 2: Big Wall Climbing Proceedures". Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique (1st ed.). Mountaineers Books. pp. 94–140. ISBN 978-0898867480.
  21. ↑ Bishart, Andrew (14 June 2015). "Climb Yosemite's El Capitan Like a Rock Star—From Your Computer". National Geographic. Archived from the original on July 27, 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  22. ↑ King, Cameron (2015). "Misjudged Pendulum". American Alpine Club. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  23. ↑ Wharton, Josh (25 August 2022). "Top-rope soloing: How Josh Wharton Climbs Multi-pitches Faster and With Less Energy". Climbing. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ogden, Jared (2005). "Chapter 2: Big Wall Climbing Procedures, Grades & Ratings". Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique (1st ed.). Mountaineers Books. pp. 56–60. ISBN 978-0898867480.
  25. ↑ "Grade Conversions: Alpine Grading System". Rockfax Publishing. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "International Grade Comparison Chart". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "International Grade Comparison Chart". American Alpine Journal. 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  28. ↑ Bello, Marisol (January 15, 2015). "Yosemite free-climbers reach top of El Capitan". USA Today.
  29. ↑ Bisharat, Andrew (January 15, 2015). "Summiting Yosemite's Dawn Wall, Climbers Make History". news.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on January 15, 2015. Retrieved 2015-01-15.
  30. ↑ Czech free-climber Adam Ondra scales Yosemite rock wall in record time (The Daily Telegraph)
  31. ↑ "Adam Ondra Completes Dawn Wall". Climbing. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  32. ↑ "Bellavista, Alexander Huber climbs 8c on Cima Ovest di Lavaredo". PlanetMountain. 23 July 2001. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  33. ↑ "Huber's Dolomite routes repeated". British Mountaineering Council. 21 July 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  34. ↑ Mingolla, Federica (20 June 2022). "Federica Mingolla and Bellavista on Dolomites Tre Cime di Lavaredo". PlanetMountain. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  35. ↑ "Lynn Hill / 25 years ago the first free ascent of The Nose on El Capitan". PlanetMountain. 8 June 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Drozdz, Piotr; Jedrzejewska, Monika (2016). "(S)ending the Neverending" (PDF). Ascent 2016 (Climbing Magazine Special Edition). pp. 12–21. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  37. ↑ "Salathé Wall". PlanetMountain. 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  38. 1 2 3 Osius, Alison (4 June 2022). "Free Solo Rock Climbing and the Climbers Who Have Defined the Sport". Climbing. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
  39. ↑ "Exclusive: Climber Completes the Most Dangerous Rope-Free Ascent Ever". National Geographic Society. 3 June 2017. Archived from the original on June 3, 2017.
  40. ↑ Mcphate, Mike (2017-06-06). "California Today: An 'Incomprehensible' Climb in Yosemite". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
  41. ↑ "Hansjörg Auer free solo Attraverso il Pesce - Fish route - in Marmolada". PlanetMountain.com.
  42. ↑ Samet, Matt (19 April 2007). "About Michael Reardon". Climbing. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  43. ↑ "Adventurers of the Year 2005: Michael Reardon, Free Soloist". National Geographic. 26 April 2006. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  44. ↑ "This is Still a Gripping Free-Solo Video – Alex Huber on a 20-Pitch 5.12a". Gripped Magazine. 2 November 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  45. ↑ Huber, Alexander; Huber, Thomas (2013). "Mount Asgard, South Tower, Free Bavarian Direct". American Alpine Journal. 55 (87): 180. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  46. ↑ Bisharat, Andrew (6 September 2022). "The 20 Best Climbing Films of All Time". Outside. Retrieved 28 September 2023.

Further reading

  • Elli, Fabio; Zabrok, Peter (2019). Hooking Up – The Ultimate Big Wall and Aid Climbing Manual (1st ed.). Versante Sud. ISBN 978-8885475809.
  • The Mountaineers (2018). Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (9th ed.). Quiller Publishing. ISBN 978-1846892622.
  • Kirkpatrick, Andy (2018). Higher Education: A Big Wall Manual (1st ed.). AK. ISBN 978-1999700591.
  • McNamara, Chris (2012). How to Big Wall Climb (1st ed.). SuperTopo. ISBN 978-0983322511.
  • Ogden, Jared (2005). Big Wall Climbing: Elite Technique (1st ed.). Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0898867480.
  • Long, John; Middendorf, John (1994). How to Climb: Big Walls (1st ed.). Falcon Guides. ISBN 978-0934641630.
  • Scott, Doug (1981). Big Wall Climbing: Development, Techniques And AIDS (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195202700.
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