Italian Wars

As was then common for the sons of gentry, in 1512 Monluc entered the service of Antoine, Duke of Lorraine as a page, before joining the ducal army at the age of 14. He later claimed to have served under Bayard in Italy but the dates and his age make this unlikely.^[9] At the beginning of the Four Years War in 1521, he enlisted as an archer in a company raised by Lescun, a distant relative. After four years of minor skirmishes, he was captured at Pavia in 1525; a decisive French defeat, he was too poor to be worth a ransom and released. During the War of the League of Cognac, he fought in Southern Italy under Lautrec, and was badly wounded at the unsuccessful Siege of Naples in 1528.^[10]

Monluc returned home and spent the next three years serving Henry II of Navarre, before joining the "Legion de Languedoc" in 1534, part of an attempt by Francis I to create a national army.^[11] In the Italian War of 1536–1538, the latest episode of the long-running conflict between Francis and Emperor Charles V, he helped defend Marseille when Imperial troops invaded Provence in 1536.^[12] He spent the next five years on garrison duty in Piedmont and when the war started again in 1542 took part in the unsuccessful attack on Perpignan, then part of Spain. In his "Memoires", Monluc claimed it failed because his advice was ignored.^[13]

Francis, Count of Enghien, celebrates his victory at Ceresole, April 1544; Montluc served as his advisor

At the French victory of Ceresole in April 1544, Monluc commanded a unit of French infantry and acted as advisor to the inexperienced Francis, Count of Enghien.^[14] During 1545, he served under the future Henry II of France in an attempt to recapture Boulogne from Henry VIII of England and was promoted colonel by the Dauphin,^[15] then returned home to Gascony in December before the war ended with the June 1546 Treaty of Ardres.^[16] Francis died in March 1547 and was succeeded by his son Henry, who appointed Montluc governor of Moncalieri in 1548.^[17]

In July 1550, he transferred into the service of Brissac, newly appointed French governor of Piedmont, ^[18] and during the Italian War of 1551–1559 led a vigorous defence of Siena which surrendered in May 1555 after a siege lasting over a year.^[19] Monluc moved to the nearby town of Montalcino and remained in Italy until May 1558 when he returned to Flanders and took part in the capture of Thionville; he was promoted to colonel-général of infantry and became a client of the powerful House of Guise.^[20] When the Italian Wars ended in April 1559 with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, Monluc was a well connected and respected military figure, while his brother Jean was a prominent diplomat and close to the Queen Mother, Catherine de' Medici. One reason for signing the treaty was the growth of Protestantism in France, which had exacerbated existing regional differences and factional splits within the nobility. By the 1550s, these tensions had brought France to the verge of civil war.^[21]

French Wars of Religion

Massacre of Vassy, 1 March 1562, which sparked the French Wars of Religion

Henry died in July 1559 at a tournament held to celebrate the peace and was succeeded by his 16-year-old son Francis II, who was dominated by Monluc's patron, the Duke of Guise.^{[22] [lower-alpha 1]} His death in December 1560 brought his ten-year-old brother Charles IX of France to the throne and initiated a struggle for power between Protestants, commonly known as Huguenots, moderate Catholics led by the Queen Mother who favoured compromise, and a more extreme faction headed by the Guise family. In January 1562, Monluc was appointed Lieutenant-General of Guyenne, charged with restoring Royal authority in the province, and two months later the massacre of Vassy led to the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion.^[23]

Despite being a Catholic bishop, his brother Jean de Monluc was a friend of Calvinist theologian Theodore Beza and a Protestant sympathiser who supported Huguenot leader Condé in his request for freedom of worship.^{[24] [lower-alpha 2]} Many of Monluc's Gascon neighbours were Protestant converts but he ultimately rejected the religion.^[25] In his "Memoires", he claimed he did so because its emphasis on freedom of conscience over obedience to Royal authority made Protestantism inherently seditious,^[26] but he may also have decided his interests were better served by remaining loyal to Francis, Duke of Guise.^[10]

By his own admission, Monluc conducted operations with great brutality, later claiming cruelty was an essential part of warfare. In the early stages of the war, he executed hundreds of Protestants, including the garrisons of Montségur and Terraube, and expressed regret lack of money forced him to ransom captured officers, rather than kill them.^{[27] [lower-alpha 3]} His victory at Vergt in October 1562 prevented Huguenot forces in southern France from reinforcing their colleagues north of the Loire.^[29]

The first stage of the civil war ended with the March 1563 Edict of Amboise, an agreement arguably made possible by the assassination of Monluc's patron Guise outside Orléans on 24 February.^[30] Although the Edict banned political or religious agitation, this provision proved impossible to enforce; the Guise faction felt it made too many concessions and Monluc was one of several military governors who set up Catholic action groups known as "Confraternities of the Holy Ghost".^[31] The four years after 1563 have been described as one of "armed peace" and Monluc focused on preparing for the resumption of hostilities, although he was replaced as Governor of Guyenne shortly before fighting began in September 1567.^[32]

Blaise de Monluc, 17th century drawing

The Second French War of Religion ended with the March 1568 Peace of Longjumeau before a third round of the conflict broke out in September after the Edict of Saint-Maur revoked official tolerance for Protestants.^[33] Soon after, Monluc fell out with the Parlement de Bordeaux over a senior Protestant prisoner, the Marquis de la Roche-Chalais; despite a royal order requiring him to exchange the marquis for two Bordelais councillors held by the Huguenots, Montluc insisted Parlement pay him a ransom of 10,000 livres before he would do so.^[34] He then poisoned their relationship further by rejecting requests for help in defending Bordeaux, arguing his troops were needed elsewhere.^[35]

Monluc spent most of the Third French War of Religion campaigning on his own in South-West France, a period he later admitted was used to enrich himself.^[36] While attacking the Protestant-held town of Rabastens on 23 July 1570, he was shot in the face by an arquebus, losing his nose and most of one cheek and forcing him to wear a mask for the rest of his life.^{[10] [lower-alpha 4]} On 8 August, the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ended the war.^[38]

His wound, combined with accusations of corruption by the Bordeaux Parlement and opponents like François de Montmorency,^{[lower-alpha 5]} led to his removal from office. The next few years were spent compiling his Commentaires de Messire Blaise de Monluc and in 1574 he was partially rehabilitated when Henry III of France made him a Marshal of France. He was deeply embittered by his injuries, later writing; "Would to heaven this accursed engine [the arquebus] had never been invented, I had not then received those wounds which I now languish under, neither had so many valiant men been slain ...by the most pitiful fellows and the greatest cowards..."^{[40] [lower-alpha 6]} He died at his home in Estillac on 24 July 1577.^[42]