Commodification in a capitalist system is the action and process of transforming goods, services, ideas, nature, personal information, people or animals into commodities.[1][2][3][4][5] A commodity is a material good such as a barrel of oil, or a bushel of wheat, that has an economic value no matter who produces it.[6] Concepts that have been argued as being commodified include broad items such as the body,[7] intimacy,[8] public goods,[9] animals[10] and holidays.[11] 

Mass Media is increasingly shown as the driving force of commodification as seen in the commodification of culture. American culture is an example of this form of commodification, where the daily actions of a society are co-opted by elite organizations, repackaged, distributed within its borders and abroad, for profit. Media, including advertising, film, television, radio, social-media, and pop music are a leading force for disruption.[12]

History

Terminology

The earliest use of the word "commodification" dates from 1975.[5] Use of the concept of commodification became common with the rise of critical discourse analysis in semiotics.[13] The terms commodification and commoditization are sometimes used synonymously,[14] to describe the process of making commodities out of goods, services, and ideas.[15][16]

However, other authors distinguish them, with commodification used in social contexts to mean that a non-commercial good has become commercial, typically with connotations of "corrupted by commerce", while commoditization is used in business contexts to mean when the market for an existing product has become a commodity market, where products are interchangeable and there is heavy price competition. In a quip: "Microprocessors are commoditized. Love is commodified."[17]

Intangible, non-produced items (love, water, air, Hawaii) are commodified whereas produced items (wheat, salt, microchips) are commoditized. The Surowiecki article Commoditization Conundrum, speaks of raw materials as a commodity- "production meets demand and the commodity value is stabilized to lowest price market will bear. Morton salt is priced higher than other salt companies', but the market pays for convenience. The lesson of Morton's success, is that even the most mundane and undifferentiated of products can be made into something unique with the right marketing strategy. Salt is salt is salt, except when it comes in a blue canister with a little girl with an umbrella on it and the promise that rain won't damage its pourability." [17]

In Marxist Theory

Karl Marx considered commodity a cell-form of capitalism.

The Marxist understanding of commodity is distinct from its meaning in business. Commodity played a key role throughout Karl Marx's work; he considered it a cell-form of capitalism and a key starting point for an analysis of this politico-economic system.[18] Marx extensively criticized the social impact of commodification under the name commodity fetishism and alienation.[19]

Prior to being turned into a commodity, an object has a "specific individual use value".[20] After becoming a commodity, that same object has a different value: the amount for which it can be exchanged for another commodity.[20] According to Marx, this new value of the commodity is derived from the time taken to produce the good, and other considerations are obsolete, including morality, environmental impact, and aesthetic appeal.[20]

Marx claimed that everything would eventually be commodified: "the things which until then had been communicated, but never exchanged, given, but never sold, acquired, but never bought – virtue, love, conscience – all at last enter into commerce."[21]

Mass Communication Studies

Media, as a culture industry, is apparent from the rise of mass communications to monetize a populace for profit. Research in critical cultural studies of media effects identify, commodification of culture, as a recent large contributing force for disruption of a society by mass media. An example is the display of American culture, to the population within its borders, and abroad. The commodity being sold is America, but mediated to show only the most exciting, dramatic, attention-getting, emotion-rousing aspects. Media corporations are expert at analyzing, selecting interesting, appealing bits and pieces of the culture, repackaging and enhancing content for a wide audience. The quest for large viewership creates an image that does not show boring, unpleasant, or minority aspects of America. The distribution of the alternate form of the culture, for profit, causes misconceptions and stereotyping along with disruption of the original folk culture. Within the United States the commodification of culture is the mediated view of American society accepted as the culture and even advanced by the culture depicted; the example given is hip-hop and rap music artists stars "selling out". The United states, with media corporations less prone to governmental interference, is successful at spreading American culture worldwide.[12]

Critical cultural research reveal consequences for the lifting of bits of culture, remolding for a mass audience, then selling the alternate view. A few of repercussions of commodification of culture: Only selected, majority cultural practices are shown leaving out other important minority cultures which are overlooked and/or ignored, As in Hollywood movies, only selected most exciting, dramatic, emotional aspects are presented while removing unpleasant, controversial or the boring. The success of marketing a culture entails distributing as much content as possible to the largest audience, causing disruption of everyday life. Elite media industries are ignorant or deny effects of mass marketing, by avoidance or by explaining that media has limited effects. There are many types of disruptions, some subtle, many obvious, including, propagation of misconceptions, loss of sense of place, a major focus on entertainment, loss of childhood, cultivation, and a disruptions of social conventions.[12]

Commodification of Culture

A critique of elites in modern societies using media to select aspects of a local culture, repackage and redistribute the alternate view of that culture for profit. Current research include books by: S. Jhally,[22] H.M. Enzensberger,[23] S. Gunster[24] and J. Tunstall.[25] Controversy and disruption occurs when this alternate view is seen as untruthful to the culture that is depicted. Disruptions include misconceptions, sameness, and a focus on entertainment.[12]

Animal commodification

Commodification of animals is one of the earliest forms of commodification, which can be traced back to the time when domestication of animals began.[10] It includes animal slavery in all forms,[26]: xvi–xvii  including use of animals for food, medicine, fashion and cosmetics, medical research, labor and transport, entertainment, wildlife trade, companionship, and so forth.[27][28] Scholars say that the commodification of nonhuman animals in food systems is directly linked to capitalist systems that prioritize "monopolistically inclined financial interests" over the well-being of humans, nonhumans, and the environment.[29] Over 200 billion land and aquatic animals are killed every year to provide humans with animal products for consumption, which many scholars and activists have described as an "animal holocaust".[30][31]: 29–32, 97 [32] The extensive use of land and other resources for the production of meat instead of grain for human consumption is a leading cause of malnutrition, hunger, and famine around the world.[10]: 204 

Human commodification

Human flesh at auction by Van Ingen Snyder.

Commodification of humans have been discussed in various context, from slavery[33] to surrogacy.[34][35] Auctions of cricket players by Indian Premier League, Big Bash League and others is also discussed to be a case of human commodification.[36][37][38] Virginity auctions are a further example of self-commodification.[39] Human commodity is a term used in case of human organ trade, paid surrogacy (also known as commodification of the womb), and human trafficking.[40][41][42] According to Gøsta Esping-Andersen, people are commodified or 'turned into objects' when selling their labour on the market to an employer.[43]

Commodification of holidays

Many holidays such as Christmas, Halloween or Valentine's Day have been argued as having become commodified.[44][45][46] The commodification of a holiday refers to making celebrations necessarily commercial and based on material goods, like gift giving, elaborate decorations, trick or treating, and card giving. Modern celebrations of many holidays are now more related to the commercial practices and profitable tactics than they are to the holidays' origins.[47] For some holidays, like Halloween, there are arguments that the commodification of the original holiday turned it into the celebrations that people now love.[47] The commodification of other holidays, like Christmas, sparks arguments about undoing the commercialization and getting back to the intended spirit of the holiday.[11]

Commodification of Indigenous cultures

bell hooks, Gloria Jean Watkins, October 2014
bell hooks, pen name for Gloria Jean Watkins, educator and social critic.

American author and feminist bell hooks described the cultural commodification of race and difference as the dominant culture "eating the other". To hooks, cultural expressions of Otherness, even revolutionary ones, are sold to the dominant culture for their enjoyment. And any messages of social change are not marketed for their messages but used as a mechanism for the dominant ones to acquire a piece of the "primitive".[48] Any interests in past historical culture almost always have a modern twist. According to Mariana Torgovnick:

What is clear now is that the West's fascination with the primitive has to do with its own crises in identity, with its own need to clearly demarcate subject and object even while flirting with other ways of experiencing the universe.[49]

hooks states that marginalized groups are seduced by this concept because of "the promise of recognition and reconciliation".

When the dominant culture demands that the Other be offered as sign that progressive political change is taking place, that the American Dream can indeed be inclusive of difference, it invites a resurgence of essentialist cultural nationalism.

Commodification of indigenous cultures refers to "areas in the life of a community which prior to its penetration by tourism have not been within the domain of economic relations regulated by criteria of market exchange" (Cohen 1988, 372). An example of this type of cultural commodification can be described through viewing the perspective of Hawaiian cultural change since the 1950s. A Hawaiian Luau, which was once a traditional performance reserved for community members and local people, but through the rise of tourism, this tradition has lost part of its cultural meaning and is now mostly a "for profit" performance.[50]

Commodification of love

Examples of profiting from love are the myriad "The Bachelorette" and "The Bachelor" television shows, and the increase in luxury hotels catering to singles during Valentine's weekends.[51]

Commodification of media, Internet and online communities

Digital commodification occurs when, a business or corporation uses information from an online community without their knowledge, for profit. The commodification of information allows a higher authority to make money rather than a collaborative system of free thoughts.[52][53][54] Corporations such as Google, Apple, Facebook, Netflix, and Amazon accelerate and concentrate the commodification of online communities.[55] Digital tracking, like cookies, have further commodified the use of the internet, giving each click, view, or stream, monetary value, even if it is an interaction with free content

Commodification of public goods

Public goods are goods for which users cannot be barred from accessing or using them, for failing to pay for them. However, such goods can also be commodified by value addition in the form of products or services or both.[56] Public goods like air[57][58] and water[59][60] can be subjected to commodification.

Self-commodification

Personal information through Social Networking Sites (SNS's), such as music purchases, how we identify, and user profiles are aggregated and sold to corporations and businesses for micro targeting, advertising and marketing.[61]

Social Media Influencers are also a recent examples of self-commodification. A travel blogger is an instance of a mediated micro-celebrity, the social-media influencer, targeting a niche audience interested in visiting exotic locale. Social Media networks expand the reach of this focused audience to make influencing a profitable profession.They commodify themselves by offering online journals, advice, thoughts, experiences along with photographs and videos, then make money by, selling books, self-branding, blog subscriptions, and advertorials. Trust and an increased audience are built by expressing a conversational style, a seemingly real experience by a real person, allowing users connect to the blogger as a friendly voice offering advice on travel choices.[62]

Commodification of subcultures

Various subcultures have been argued to as having become commodified, for example the goth subculture,[63][64] the biker subculture,[65][66] the tattoo subculture,[67] the witchcraft subculture,[68] and others.[69]

Commodification of tourism

Tourism has been analyzed in the context of commodification in the context of transforming local cultures and heritage into marketable goods.[70][71][72][73] The commodification of tourism removes local culture from the foreground, replacing it with profitability from non-residents. This may be in the form of entertainment, souvenirs, food markets, or others. Tourism leads, in part, to the commodification of indigenous cultures as people return from visits with partial ideas and representations of the culture.[71]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Maloney, Lauren. "The Commodification of Human Beings". nulawreview.org. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  2. ↑ Wilsterman, James M. (2008). "The Human Commodity". thecrimson. thecrimson.com. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  3. ↑ Rigi, Jakob (2012). "Peer to Peer Production as the Alternative to Capitalism: A New Communist Horizon". Journal of Peer Production.
  4. ↑ For animals, "United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database", UN ComTrade; Josephine Donovan, "Aestheticizing Animal Cruelty," College Literature, 38(4), Fall 2011 (pp. 202–217), p. 203. JSTOR 41302895
    For slaves as commodities, Appadurai 1986, pp. 84–85; David Hawkes, Shakespeare and Economic Theory, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015, p. 130.
    For body commodification, Lesley A. Sharp, "The Commodification of the Body and Its Parts," Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 2000 (pp. 287–328) p. 295ff. JSTOR 223423
  5. 1 2 commodification, n. Second edition, 1989; online version November 2010. <http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37198>; accessed 6 January 2011.
  6. ↑ Rosenberry, Jack; Vicker, Lauren A. (25 August 2021). Applied Mass Communication Theory: A Guide for Media Practitioners (3 ed.). New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003121695. ISBN 978-1-003-12169-5. S2CID 241008444.
  7. ↑ Sharp, Lesley A. (21 October 2000). "The Commodification of the Body and its Parts". Annual Review of Anthropology. 29 (1): 287–328. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.29.1.287. ISSN 0084-6570. PMID 15977341.
  8. ↑ Constable, Nicole (October 2009). "The Commodification of Intimacy: Marriage, Sex, and Reproductive Labor". Annual Review of Anthropology. 38 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085133. ISSN 0084-6570.
  9. ↑ "Commodification | Neoliberalism". neolib.uga.edu. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  10. 1 2 3 Nibert, David (2011). "Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex". In Steven Best; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; Peter McLaren (eds.). The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 197–209. ISBN 978-0-7391-3698-0.
  11. 1 2 "We Can Reclaim Christmas from Capitalism". In These Times. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Baran, S. J.; Davis, D. K. (2015). Mass communication theory : foundations, ferment, and future (Seventh edition.). Cengage Learning.
  13. ↑ "Critical Discourse Analysis and Stylistics" (PDF). Retrieved 22 September 2011.
  14. ↑ Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with commentary on lexicographers and linguists, Robert Hartwell Fiske, p. 99
  15. ↑ Appadurai 1986, also cited in Martha M. Ertman, Joan C. Williams, Rethinking commodification, 2005, in Afterword by Carol Rose, pp. 402–403. This cites various uses of commodification to mean "become a commodity market", and considers the use of commodification (Peggy Radin, 1987) and commoditization (Appadurai 1986) as equivalent.
  16. ↑ Greenwood, D.J. (1977). V. L. Smith (ed.). "Culture by the Pound: An Anthropological Perspective on Tourism as Cultural Commoditization". Hosts and Guests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 129–139.
  17. 1 2 Surowiecki, James (30 January 1998). "The Commoditization Conundrum". Slate. Retrieved 16 August 2015. What corporations fear is the phenomenon now known, rather inelegantly, as "commoditization." What the term means is simply the conversion of the market for a given product into a commodity market, which is characterized by declining prices and profit margins, increasing competition, and lowered barriers to entry. ("Commoditization" is therefore different from "commodification," the word cultural critics use to decry the corruption of higher goods by commercial values. Microprocessors are commoditized. Love is commodified.)
  18. ↑ Prodnik, Jernej (2012). "A Note on the Ongoing Processes of Commodification: From the Audience Commodity to the Social Factory". Scribd. pp. 274–301. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  19. ↑ Marx, Karl (1867). "Chapter 1, Section 3: The Form of Value or Exchange-Value, Part 4 The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret thereof". Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Progress Press, Moscow – via Marxists Internet Archive.
  20. 1 2 3 Hearn, A. (2017). Commodification. In L. Ouellette, & J. Gray (Eds.), Keywords for media studies. New York University Press. Credo Reference: https://uri.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/nyupresskms/commodification/0?institutionId=4949
  21. ↑ Leopold, David (29 April 2015). "Karl Marx". In Duncan Pritchard (ed.). Philosophy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0265. ISBN 978-0-19-539657-7.
  22. ↑ Jhally, S. (1987). The Political Economy of Culture.
  23. ↑ Enzensberger, H. M. (1974). The consciousness industry; on literature, politics and the media. Seabury Press.
  24. ↑ Jhally, S (1987). The codes of advertising : fetishism and the political economy of meaning in the consumer society. F. Pinter.
  25. ↑ Tunstall, J (1977). The media are American. Columbia University Press.
  26. ↑ Best, Steven (2011). "Introduction: Pathologies of Power and the Rise of the Global Industrial Complex". In Steven Best; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; Peter McLaren (eds.). The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. ix–xxv. ISBN 978-0-7391-3698-0.
  27. ↑ Beirne, Piers (May 2021). "Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover". The British Journal of Criminology. Oxford University Press. 61 (3): 607–626. doi:10.1093/bjc/azaa084. ISSN 1464-3529. PMC 7953978. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  28. ↑ Arcari, Paula (May 2020). "Disconnection & Demonisation: COVID-19 Shows Why We Need to Stop Commodifying All Animals". Social Sciences & Humanities Open. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3599772. S2CID 225822910. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  29. ↑ Repka, Meneka (2019). Nocella Ii, Anthony J; Drew, Carolyn; George, Amber E; Ketenci, Sinem; Lupinacci, John; Purdy, Ian; Leeson-Schatz, Joe (eds.). Education for Total Liberation: Critical Animal Pedagogy and Teaching Against Speciesism. Radical Animal Studies and Total Liberation (1 ed.). New York: Peter Lang. doi:10.3726/b14204. ISBN 978-1-4331-5789-9. S2CID 240272942.
  30. ↑ Benatar, David (2015). "The Misanthropic Argument for Anti-natalism". In S. Hannan; S. Brennan; R. Vernon (eds.). Permissible Progeny?: The Morality of Procreation and Parenting. Oxford University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-937812-8.
  31. ↑ Best, Steven (2014). The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-47111-6.
  32. ↑ Hedges, Chris (3 August 2015). "A Haven From the Animal Holocaust". Truthdig. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  33. ↑ Rinehart, Nicholas T (1 September 2016). "The Man That Was a Thing: Reconsidering Human Commodification in Slavery". Journal of Social History. 50 (1): 28–50. doi:10.1093/jsh/shv129. ISSN 0022-4529.
  34. ↑ Patel, Nayana Hitesh; Jadeja, Yuvraj Digvijaysingh; Bhadarka, Harsha Karsan; Patel, Molina Niket; Patel, Niket Hitesh; Sodagar, Nilofar Rahematkhan (2018). "Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices". Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences. 11 (3): 212–218. doi:10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17. ISSN 0974-1208. PMC 6262674. PMID 30568349.
  35. ↑ Neal, M. (1 April 2011). "Protecting Women: Preserving Autonomy in the Commodification of Motherhood". William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, and Social Justice. 17 (3): 611. ISSN 1081-549X.
  36. ↑ "Indian cricketers are a pampered lot; but have they also been commodified?". Firstpost. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  37. ↑ "Selling cricket as a commodity -". 26 February 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  38. ↑ "Reducing Cricketers into Cattle: The IPL Destroys the Spirit of Sports - The New Leam". Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  39. ↑ Dunn, Jennifer C.; Vik, Tennley A. (1 September 2014). "Virginity for Sale: A Foucauldian Moment in the History of Sexuality". Sexuality & Culture. 18 (3): 487–504. doi:10.1007/s12119-013-9207-0. ISSN 1936-4822. S2CID 143947497. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  40. ↑ Maloney, Lauren. "The Commodification of Human Beings". nulawreview.org. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  41. ↑ Wilsterman, James M. (2008). "The Human Commodity". thecrimson. thecrimson.com. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  42. ↑ Capron, Alexander M. (2017). "Human Commodification: Professions, Governments, and the Need for Further Exploration". New Cannibal Markets: Globalization and Commodification of the Human Body. Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme. pp. 397–416. ISBN 978-2-7351-2285-1.
  43. ↑ Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (PDF). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-691-09457-8.
  44. ↑ Groom, Nick (2 October 2018). "Hallowe'en and Valentine: The Culture of Saints' Days in the English-Speaking World". Folklore. 129 (4): 331–352. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2018.1510651. ISSN 0015-587X. S2CID 165870855.
  45. ↑ "Valentine's Day and the Commodification of Love or the Economic Impacts of Courtship – City REDI Blog". blog.bham.ac.uk. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  46. ↑ Cox, Patrick (2015), "Christmas", The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer Studies, American Cancer Society, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1002/9781118989463.wbeccs260, ISBN 978-1-118-98946-3, retrieved 18 March 2021
  47. 1 2 Morton, Lisa. "All hail the commodification of Halloween: Over the years, companies profiting off the holiday are what have made it an American favorite". nydailynews.com. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  48. ↑ hooks, bell 1992. Black Looks: Race and Representation (South End Press)
  49. ↑ Torgovnick, Marianna 1991. Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (Chicago)
  50. ↑ Cohen, Erik (1988). "Authenticity and commodification in tourism". Annals of Tourism Research. 15 (3): 371–386. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(88)90028-X.
  51. ↑ Lipton, L (2003). "In Selling Valentine's Day, U.S. Marketers Decide To Broaden `Love' Concept --- Hotels Look Beyond Couples to Woo Singles, Pet Set; You, Me -- and Fido". Wall Street Journal.
  52. ↑ Niemeyer, Katharina; Keightley, Emily (1 September 2020). "The commodification of time and memory: Online communities and the dynamics of commercially produced nostalgia". New Media & Society. 22 (9): 1639–1662. doi:10.1177/1461444820914869. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 214293153.
  53. ↑ Lupton, Deborah (2014). "The commodification of patient opinion: the digital patient experience economy in the age of big data". Sociology of Health & Illness. 36 (6): 856–869. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.12109. hdl:2123/9063. ISSN 1467-9566. PMID 24443847.
  54. ↑ Currah, Andrew (1 August 2007). "Managing creativity: the tensions between commodities and gifts in a digital networked environment". Economy and Society. 36 (3): 467–494. doi:10.1080/03085140701428415. ISSN 0308-5147. S2CID 145631922.
  55. ↑ Hearn, A. (2017). Commodification. In L. Ouellette, & J. Gray (Eds.), Keywords for media studies. New York University Press. Credo Reference: https://uri.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/nyupresskms/commodification/0?institutionId=4949
  56. ↑ "Commodification | Neoliberalism". neolib.uga.edu. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  57. ↑ Jose, George (3 September 2017). "Hawa khaana in Vasai Virar". City. 21 (5): 632–640. doi:10.1080/13604813.2017.1374779. ISSN 1360-4813. S2CID 149420789.
  58. ↑ Burawoy, Michael (31 May 2010). "From Polanyi to Pollyanna: The False Optimism of Global Labor Studies". Global Labour Journal. 1 (2). doi:10.15173/glj.v1i2.1079. ISSN 1918-6711.
  59. ↑ Barlow, Maude (1 February 2001). "Commodification of water - the wrong prescription". Water Science and Technology. 43 (4): 79–84. doi:10.2166/wst.2001.0183. ISSN 0273-1223. PMID 11379230.
  60. ↑ "Public Reason - The Commodification of the Public Service of Water: A Normative Perspective". publicreason.ro. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  61. ↑ Ess, Charles (2020). Digital media ethics (Third ed.). Cambridge Medford, MA: Polity. ISBN 978-1-5095-3342-8.
  62. ↑ Duffy, Andrew; Kang, Hillary Yu Ping (31 July 2019). "Follow me, I'm famous: travel bloggers' self-mediated performances of everyday exoticism". Media, Culture & Society. 42 (2): 172–190. doi:10.1177/0163443719853503. ISSN 0163-4437.
  63. ↑ Spracklen, Karl; Spracklen, Beverley (1 April 2014). "The strange and spooky battle over bats and black dresses: The commodification of Whitby Goth Weekend and the loss of a subculture". Tourist Studies. 14 (1): 86–102. doi:10.1177/1468797613511688. ISSN 1468-7976. S2CID 145623916.
  64. ↑ Cova, Bernard; Kozinets, Robert; Shankar, Avi (25 June 2012). Consumer Tribes. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-41467-1.
  65. ↑ Krier, Daniel; Swart, William J. (1 January 2016). "The Commodification of Spectacle: Spectators, Sponsors and the Outlaw Biker Diegesis at Sturgis". Critical Sociology. 42 (1): 11–32. doi:10.1177/0896920514524605. ISSN 0896-9205. S2CID 145097590.
  66. ↑ Austin, D. Mark; Gagne, Patricia; Orend, Angela (2010). "Commodification and Popular Imagery of the Biker in American Culture". The Journal of Popular Culture. 43 (5): 942–963. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00781.x. ISSN 1540-5931.
  67. ↑ Kosut, Mary (2006). "An Ironic Fad: The Commodification and Consumption of Tattoos". The Journal of Popular Culture. 39 (6): 1035–1048. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00333.x. ISSN 1540-5931.
  68. ↑ Berger, Helen A. (25 September 2006). Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1971-5.
  69. ↑ Schiele, Kristen; Venkatesh, Alladi (2 September 2016). "Regaining control through reclamation: how consumption subcultures preserve meaning and group identity after commodification". Consumption Markets & Culture. 19 (5): 427–450. doi:10.1080/10253866.2015.1135797. ISSN 1025-3866. S2CID 146815933.
  70. ↑ Russell, Constance L.; Ankenman, M. J. (1 January 1996). "Orangutans as Photographic Collectibles: Ecotourism and The Commodification of Nature". Tourism Recreation Research. 21 (1): 71–78. doi:10.1080/02508281.1996.11014765. ISSN 0250-8281.
  71. 1 2 Shepherd, Robert (1 August 2002). "Commodification, culture and tourism". Tourist Studies. 2 (2): 183–201. doi:10.1177/146879702761936653. ISSN 1468-7976. S2CID 55744323.
  72. ↑ Kirtsoglou, Elisabeth; Theodossopoulos, Dimitrios (1 June 2004). "'They are Taking Our Culture Away': Tourism and Culture Commodification in the Garifuna Community of Roatan". Critique of Anthropology. 24 (2): 135–157. doi:10.1177/0308275X04042650. ISSN 0308-275X. S2CID 144331095.
  73. ↑ Cousins, Jenny A.; Evans, James; Sadler, Jon (2009). "Selling Conservation? Scientific Legitimacy and the Commodification of Conservation Tourism". Ecology and Society. 14 (1). doi:10.5751/ES-02804-140132. hdl:10535/3507. ISSN 1708-3087. JSTOR 26268031.

Bibliography

  • Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, ISSN 1875-4120 Available at SSRN.com
  • Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, ISSN 0035-614X, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at SSRN.com
  • Schimank, Uwe and Volkmann, Ute (ed.): The Marketization of Society: Economizing the Non-Economic. Bremen: Research Cluster "Welfare Societies", 2012.

Further reading

Polanyi, Karl. "The Self-Regulating Market," Economics as a Social Science, 2nd edn, 2004.

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