Diversity, equity, and inclusion (usually abbreviated DEI) refers to organizational frameworks which seek to promote "the fair treatment and full participation of all people", particularly groups "who have historically been underrepresented or subject to discrimination" on the basis of identity or disability.[1] These three notions (diversity, equity, and inclusion) together represent "three closely linked values" which organizations seek to institutionalize through DEI frameworks,[2] even if some scholars argue that, for instance, diversity and inclusion should be decoupled in some cases.[3] Some frameworks, primarily in Britain, substitute the notion of "equity" with equality: equality, diversity, inclusion (EDI).[4][5][6] Other variations include diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging (DEIB),[7][8][9] justice, equity, diversity and inclusion (JEDI or EDIJ),[10][11] or diversity, equity, inclusion and access (IDEA, DEIA or DEAI).[12][13][14]

Diversity refers to the presence of variety within the organizational workforce, such as in identity (i.e. gender, culture, ethnicity, religion, disability, class etc.), age or opinion.[2][15] Equity refers to concepts of fairness and justice, such as fair compensation.[15] More specifically, equity usually also includes a focus on societal disparities and allocating resources and "decision making authority to groups that have historically been disadvantaged",[16] and taking "into consideration a person's unique circumstances, adjusting treatment accordingly so that the end result is equal."[2] Finally, inclusion refers to creating an organizational culture that creates an experience where "all employees feel their voices will be heard",[2] and a sense of belonging and integration.[15][17]

DEI is most often used to describe certain "training" efforts, such as diversity training. Though DEI is best known as a form of corporate training, it also finds implementation within many types of organizations, such as within academia, schools, and hospitals.[18][19]

In recent years, DEI efforts and policies have generated criticism, some directed at the specific effectiveness of its tools, such as diversity training, its effect on free speech and academic freedom, as well as more broadly attracting criticism on political or philosophical grounds.

History

DEI policy emerged from Affirmative Action in the United States.[20] The legal term "affirmative action" was first used in "Executive Order No. 10925",[21] signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961, which included a provision that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated [fairly] during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".[22] It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In September 1965, President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to "hire without regard to race, religion and national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin."[23] The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Neither executive order nor The Civil Rights Act authorized group preferences. The Senate floor manager of the bill, Senator Hubert Humphrey, declared that the bill “would prohibit preferential treatment for any particular group” adding “I will eat my hat if this leads to racial quotas.” [24] However affirmative action in practice would eventually become synonymous with preferences, goals and quotas as upheld or struck down by Supreme Court decisions even though no law had been passed explicitly permitting discrimination in favor of disadvantaged groups. Some state laws explicitly banned racial preferences, and in response some laws have failed attempting to explicitly legalize race preferences.

Affirmative action is intended to alleviate under-representation and to promote the opportunities of defined minority groups within a society to give them equal access to that of the majority population.[25] The philosophical basis of the policy has various rationales, including but not limited to compensation for past discrimination, correction of current discrimination, and the diversification of society.[26] It is often implemented in governmental and educational settings to ensure that designated groups within a society can participate in all promotional, educational, and training opportunities.[27]

The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is to help compensate for past discrimination, persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture,[28] and to address existing discrimination.[29] More recently concepts have moved beyond discrimination to include diversity, equity and inclusion as motives for preferring historically underrepresented groups.

In the famous Bakke decision of 1978, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, diversity now became a factor in constitutional law. The Supreme Court ruled quotas were illegal but it was allowable to consider race as a plus factor when trying to foster "diversity" in their classes.[30] [31]

Diversity themes gained momentum in the mid-1980s. At a time when President Ronald Reagan threatened to dismantle equality and affirmative action laws in the 1980s, equality and affirmative action professionals employed by US firms along with equality consultants, engaged in establishing the argument that a diverse workforce should be seen as a competitive advantage rather than just as a legal constraint. Basically, their message was, do not promote diversity because it is a legal mandate, but because it is good for business . From then on, researchers started to test a number of hypotheses on the business benefits of diversity and of diversity management, known as the business case of diversity.[32]

The presence of multicultural and diversity management in the workplace has been depicted as the existence of conceptual and operational policies and programs within the organizations that ensure that the various groups that exists in the societal spectrum are able to effectively participate in the various levels that exists in the organizations.[33]

In 2003 corporations spent $8 billion annually on diversity. After the election of Donald Trump in 2016 and the ascent of the #MeToo and Black Lives Matter movements, Time magazine stated in 2019 that the DEI industry had "exploded" in size.[34] Within academia, a 2019 survey found that spending on DEI efforts had increased 27 percent over the five preceding academic years.[35]

One 2020 estimate placed the size of the global diversity and inclusion market at $7.5 billion, of which $3.4 billion was in the United States, projecting it to reach $17.2 billion by 2027.[36] DEI is more common than D&I, and represents many different methodologies.

In 2021, New York magazine stated "the business became astronomically larger than ever" after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020.[37] The Economist has also stated that surveys of international companies indicate that the number of people hired for jobs with "diversity" or "inclusion" in the title more than quadrupled since 2010.[38]

Methods and arguments

In a 2018 article, proponents of DEI argued that because businesses and corporations exist within a larger world, they cannot be completely separated from the issues that exist in society. Therefore, the authors argue the need for DEI to improve coworker relations and teamwork.[39] Through a DEI plan, organizations outline measures to be taken, including recruiting and retaining personnel, fostering effective communication channels, imparting relevant training, and regulating workplace conduct.[40]

As of 2022 many academic institutions in the US have also started making commitments to DEI in different ways, including creating documents, programs and appointing dedicated staff members especially in the US.[41][42] Many accreditation agencies now require supporting DEI.[43][44] As of 2014, information on DEI for both students and professors was widespread in colleges and universities, with many schools requiring training and meetings on the topic. Many scholarships and opportunities at universities even have a secondary purpose of encouraging diversity. Diversity in higher education can be difficult, with diverse students often feeling reduced to fulfilling a 'diversity quota,' which can carry a high emotional tax.[45]

DEI positions also exist with the goal of creating allies for public school students through resources and staff training, in order to support students facing social disparities.[46][47] Other proponents of allyship consider impromptu speaking a key skill for allies to operate on authenticity in everyday words and reactions.[48]

Criticism and controversy

Diversity training

Diversity training, a common tool used in DEI efforts, has repeatedly come under criticism as being ineffective or even counterproductive.[49][38][50][51] The Economist has stated that "the consensus now emerging among academics is that many anti-discrimination policies have no effect. What is worse, they often backfire".[38] A regular claim is that these efforts mainly work to protect against litigation.[38][52] It has also been criticized that there has been limited progress in achieving racial diversity in corporate leadership, particularly for Black professionals, due to a lack of diverse Chief Diversity Officers and a broad DEI focus that overlooks specific issues Black professionals face.[53] A 2007 study of 829 companies over 31 years showed "no positive effects in the average workplace" from diversity training, while the effect was negative where it was mandatory.[52] According to Harvard University professor in sociology and diversity researcher Frank Dobbin, "[o]n average, the typical all-hands-on-deck, 'everybody has to have diversity training' – that typical format in big companies doesn't have any positive effects on any historically underrepresented groups like black men or women, Hispanic men or women, Asian-American men or women or white women."[50]

Mandatory diversity statements within academia

The use of mandatory "diversity statements" within academia, wherein an applicant or faculty member outlines their "past contributions" and plans "for advancing diversity, equity and inclusion" if hired, has become controversial and sparked criticism.[54] The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE) has called such practices an attack on academic freedom, stating that "[v]ague or ideologically motivated DEI statement policies can too easily function as litmus tests for adherence to prevailing ideological views on DEI" and "penalize faculty for holding dissenting opinions on matters of public concern".[55] According to a 2022 survey conducted by the American Association of University Professors, one in five American colleges and universities include DEI criteria in tenure standards, including 45.6 percent of institutions with more than 5000 students.[56] Some universities have begun to weigh diversity statements heavily in hiring processes; for example, University of California, Berkeley eliminated three-quarters of applicants for five faculty positions in the life sciences exclusively on the basis of their diversity statements, in the hiring cycle of 2018–2019.[57]

The Academic Freedom Alliance (AFA) has called for the end of required diversity statements, stating it "encourages cynicism and dishonesty" and erases "the distinction between academic expertise and ideological conformity".[58] Social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, who resigned from the SPSP in protest against mandatory diversity statements, has stated that "most academic work has nothing to do with diversity, so these mandatory statements force many academics to betray their quasi-fiduciary duty to the truth by spinning, twisting, or otherwise inventing some tenuous connection to diversity".[59] Other criticisms include that it "devalues merit", is connected to affirmative action, that it violates the First Amendment, or function as loyalty oaths.[54][60][61]

A 1500-person survey conducted by FIRE reported that the issue is highly polarizing for faculty members, with half saying their view more closely aligns with the description of diversity statements as "a justifiable requirement for a job at a university", while the other half saw it as "an ideological litmus test that violates academic freedom".[62]

Several U.S. states have implemented legislation to ban mandatory diversity statements.[62]

Equity versus equality

According to DEI frameworks, "equity is different than equality in that equality implies treating everyone as if their experiences are exactly the same."[63][64] A common identification, especially among critics, is of equality as meaning "equality of opportunities" and equity as "equality of outcome".[65][66] Some have criticized this focus on equity rather than equality, arguing that the former runs contrary to a focus on merit or non-discrimination. Political scientist Charles Lipson has called "equity" a "mandate to discriminate", threatening the principle of "equality under the law",[67] while Canadian psychologist Jordan Peterson, a frequent critic of DEI, has called equity "the most egregious, self-righteous, historically-ignorant and dangerous" of the three titular notions of DEI.[68] The debate has also branched into the realm of politics. Commenting on Governor of Texas Greg Abbott calling DEI initiatives "illegal", a spokesperson for his office stated "[t]he issue is not diversity — the issue is that equity is not equality. Here in Texas, we give people a chance to advance based on talent and merit".[15]


Effects of DEI policies on free speech and academic freedom

In recent years, high-profile incidents of campus conflict have sparked debate about the effect of DEI on the campus environment, academic freedom and free speech.[69][70][71]

The 2021 cancelling of an MIT guest lecture by astrophysicist Dorian Abbot after he criticized DEI programs led to media attention and controversy.[72][73][74] As a result, MIT empaneled a committee to investigate the state of academic freedom at the university.[74]

The 2023 disruption of a talk by Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Kyle Duncan at Stanford Law School sparked criticism and discussion in the media, with many focusing on the role of Associate DEI Dean Tirien Steinbach, who joined protesters in denouncing Duncan's presence on campus.[75][76][77] In the wake of the incident, the editorial board of the Wall Street Journal opined that DEI offices have "become weapons to intimidate and limit speech".[78] Steinbach replied with "Diversity and Free Speech Can Coexist at Stanford", published in the Journal the following week.[79][80] Dean of Stanford Law School, Jenny S. Martínez, also published a ten-page document addressing the situation and clarifying Stanford's position on free speech. In it, Martinez stated that the university's commitment to DEI "can and should be implemented in ways that are consistent with its commitment to academic freedom and free speech" and that she believed that "the commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion actually means that we must protect free expression of all views."[81] She added that the commitment would not take the form of "having the school administration announce institutional positions on a wide range of current social and political issues, make frequent institutional statements about current news events, or exclude or condemn speakers who hold views on social and political issues with whom some or even many in our community disagree", criticizing this definition of an "inclusive environment" by stating it "can lead to creating and enforcing an institutional orthodoxy."[81]

In April 2023, a group of 29 scientists, including Nobel laureates Dan Shechtman and Arieh Warshel, published a paper which outlined what the authors see as a "clash in science between classical liberal values" and a "new postmodern worldview", which, they argue, is "enforced by 'Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion' (DEI) officers and bureaucracies" and "threatens the entire scientific enterprise."[82] Two of the authors, Anna Krylov and Jerry Coyne, subsequently argued in an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal that their emphasis on merit – "once anodyne and unobjectionable [...] now contentious and outré, even in the hard sciences" – led to its refusal by major journals and subsequent publication in the Journal of Controversial Ideas.[83]

The 2023 suicide of former Toronto principal Richard Bilkszto led to a new wave of controversy surrounding DEI in the workplace and its impact on freedom of expression.[84][85] Bilkszto had earlier filed a lawsuit against the Toronto District School Board in the wake of a 2021 incident at a DEI training seminar; Bilkszto was later diagnosed with "anxiety secondary to a workplace event", and claimed the session and its aftermath had destroyed his reputation. Bilkszto's lawyer has publicly linked this incident and its aftermath with his death.[84][85] In the wake of Bilkszto's death, Ontario minister of education, Stephen Lecce, stated he had asked for a review and "options to reform professional training and strengthen accountability on school boards so this never happens again", calling Bilkszto's allegations before his death "serious and disturbing".[84] Bilkszto's death generated international attention and renewed debate on DEI and freedom of speech.[86][87] According to The Globe and Mail, the incident has also been "seized on by a number of prominent right-wing commentators looking to roll-back [DEI] initiatives."[85] The anti-racism trainer involved in the incident has stated they welcome the review by Lecce, and stated that the incident has been "weaponized to discredit and suppress the work of people committed [to DEI]".[84][85]

Antisemitism

DEI has been accused of ignoring or even contributing to antisemitism.[88][89][90][91] According to Andria Spindel, of the Canadian Antisemitism Education Foundation, antisemitism has been largely ignored in the DEI curriculum.[92] The relationship between DEI and campus antisemitism came under further scrunity after the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel, and the subsequent war in Gaza.[93][94]

Tabia Lee, a former DEI director at De Anza College in California turned critic, has claimed that DEI frameworks foster antisemitism due to its "oppressors and the oppressed" dichotomy where "Jews are categorically placed in the oppressor category",[95] and described as "white oppressors".[96] She has claimed that her attempts to include Jews under the "DEI" umbrella was resisted.[97] When her critics asked the college trustees to oust her from her role, one counselor explicitly referenced her attempts to place Jewish students "on the same footing as marginalized groups".[97] The Brandeis Center likewise notes how the DEI committee at Stanford University alleged that "Jews, unlike other minority group[s], possess privilege and power, Jews and victims of Jew-hatred do not merit or necessitate the attention of the DEI committee", after two students complained about antisemitic incidents on campus.[98]

Following a wake of antisemitic incidents on American campuses in 2023, several Republican congressmen laid the blame at DEI, with Burgess Owens stating DEI programs "are anything but inclusive for Jews".[99] DEI's lack of inclusion for Jews, and contribution to fueling antisemitism, was similarly criticized by businessman Bill Ackman,[100] and columnist Heather Mac Donald.[101] Following the anti-semitism controversy at the University of Pennsylvania, one donor pulled a $100 million donation "because he thought the school was prioritizing D.E.I. over enhancing the business school's academic excellence."[102]

Politicization and ideology

DEI has according to some critics become a distinct ideology or "political agenda", leading to a politicization of universities.[103] CNN's Fareed Zakaria has criticized American universities for "[h]aving gone so far down the ideological path", that "these universities and these presidents cannot make the case clearly that at the center of a university is the free expression of ideas", opining that "[t]he most obvious lack of diversity at universities, political diversity, which clearly affects their ability to analyze many issues, is not addressed".[103] Historian Niall Ferguson has called DEI a "political agenda", and an "ideology of hierarchy", arguing that it "has to be recognized that DEI is like something out of Nineteen Eighty-Four. . . . It is a newspeak designed to achieve precisely the opposite of what those words appear to mean. Not diversity, but homogeneity of thought. Not equity, but profound iniquity and absence of due process for anybody who transgresses from the woke ideology. And as for inclusion, the whole process is one of exclusion of anybody unwilling to conform."[104] Ferguson has also drawn direct comparisons between American universities in the 2020s and the politicization of German universities in the 1920s.[105]

Disability community

According to some critics, DEI initiatives inadvertently sideline disabled people. Writing for The Conversation in 2017, college professor Stephen Friedman said that "organizations who are serious about DEI must adopt the frame of producing shared value where business and social goods exist side-by-side".[106] According to a Time article in 2023, "people with disabilities are being neglected".[107]

This view has been echoed by a number of DEI leaders and activists. Sara Hart Weir, the former president and CEO of the National Down Syndrome Society, and co-founder of the Commission for Disability Employment, argues that when deliberating on the vision of DEI success in the United States, policymakers and employers need to take proactive measures to engaging with people with disabilities who they historically ignored.[108] Corinne Gray has argured that "if you embrace diversity, but ignore disability, you're doing it wrong."[109]

Political and public backlash

Entertainment and media

Within the film industry, several prominent actors and directors have criticized recently implemented diversity standards, such as at the Academy Awards. Beginning in 2024, to be eligible for a best-picture nomination at the Academy Awards, a film must meet two of four diversity standards in order to qualify.[110]

Actor Richard Dreyfuss stated the Academy Award's diversity and inclusion standards "make me vomit", arguing that art should not be morally legislated.[111] Several major film directors, who are voting members of the Academy Awards, anonymously expressed their opposition to the new diversity standards to The New York Post, with one describing them as "contrived".[112] Film critic Armond White attacked the new standards as "progressive fascism", comparing them to the Hays Code.[113]

Conservative media sources, such as National Review, have also been frequent critics of DEI, with contributor George Leff arguing it is authoritarian and anti-meritocratic.[114]

Politics

In the 2020s, DEI came into the spotlight in American politics, with several prominent Republicans positioning themselves as critics, including Governor Ron DeSantis,[115] Governor Greg Abbott,[15] and presidential candidate Vivek Ramaswamy.[116]

Several U.S. states are considering or have passed legislation targeting DEI in public institutions. In March 2023, Texas's House of Representatives passed a bill with a rider banning the use of state funds for DEI programs in universities and colleges.[117] In May 2023, Texas passed legislation banning offices and programs promoting DEI at publicly funded colleges and universities.[118][119] In Iowa, a bill to ban spending on DEI in public universities was also advanced in March 2023.[120]

Another significant point of political controversy has been the implementation of DEI frameworks in the military, with Republican politicians frequently criticizing the efforts as "divisive" and as harming military efficiency and recruiting, while Democrats have defended it as beneficial and strengthening.[121] On 14 July 2023, the House of Representatives voted to ban all DEI offices and initiatives within the Pentagon and military along partisan lines, with four Republican members also opposing.[122][123]

Public boycotts

Political opposition to corporate DEI efforts in the United States, particularly marketing criticized as "woke", have led to calls for boycotts of certain companies by conservative activists and politicians; with notable examples being Disney, Target, Anheuser-Busch,[124] and Chick-fil-A.[125][126] Commentator Jonathan Turley of The Hill described such boycotts as possessing "some success".[127]

Some of these companies' responses to the controversies have, in turn, sparked criticism from progressives of "walking back" or failing DEI commitments.[128][129]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Anderson, Terry H. The pursuit of fairness: a history of affirmative action (Oxford University Press, 2004), a standard scholarly history
  • Barnett, Rachel. "Leading with meaning: Why diversity, equity, and inclusion matters in US higher education." Perspectives in Education 38.2 (2020): 20-35. online
  • Byrd, Marilyn Y., and Chaunda L. Scott, eds. Diversity in the workforce: Current issues and emerging trends. (2024).online
  • Ferraro, Carla, Alicia Hemsley, and Sean Sands. "Embracing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI): Considerations and opportunities for brand managers." Business Horizons 66.4 (2023): 463-479.
  • Fleming, Robert S. "Diversity, equity, and inclusion." in Preparing for a Successful Faculty Career: Achieving Career Excellence as a Faculty Member (Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024). 157-159. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50161-6_35
  • Iyer, Aarti. "Understanding advantaged groups' opposition to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) policies: The role of perceived threat." Social and Personality Psychology Compass 16.5 (2022): e12666. online
  • Nakamura, Brent K., and Lauren B. Edelman. "Bakke at 40: How diversity matters in the employment context." UC Davis Law Review 52 (2018): 2627-2679. online
  • Portocarrero, Sandra, and James T. Carter. "Diversity initiatives in the US workplace: A brief history, their intended and unintended consequences." Sociology Compass 16.7 (2022): e13001. online
  • Rubio, Philip F. A History of Affirmative Action, 1619-2000 (University Press of Mississippi, 2001), a standard scholarly history
  • Russen, Michelle, and Mary Dawson. "Which should come first? Examining diversity, equity and inclusion." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 36.1 (2024): 25-40. online
  • Soucek, Brian. "Diversity Statements." UC Davis Law Review 55#4 (2021): 1989-2062. Controversy regarding statements required of university faculty. online
  • Tatli, Ahu. "A multi‐layered exploration of the diversity management field: diversity discourses, practices and practitioners in the UK." British Journal of Management 22.2 (2011): 238-253.
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