Temple of Apollo at Delphi, by Albert Tournaire

The Delphic maxims are a set of moral precepts that were inscribed on the Temple of Apollo in the ancient Greek precinct of Delphi. The three best known maxims – "Know thyself", "Nothing in excess", and "Give a pledge and trouble is at hand" – were prominently located at the entrance to the temple, and were traditionally said to have been authored by the legendary Seven Sages of Greece, or even by Apollo. In fact, they are more likely to have simply been popular proverbs. Each maxim has a long history of interpretation, although the third of the set has received comparatively little attention.

A further 147 maxims, documented by Stobaeus in the 5th century AD, were also located somewhere in the vicinity of the temple. The antiquity and authenticity of these maxims was once in doubt, but recent archaeological discoveries have confirmed that some of the sayings quoted by Stobaeus were current as early as the 3rd century BC.

Entrance maxims

Three maxims are known to have been inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi at least as early as the 5th century BC, and possibly earlier.[1] These inscriptions are routinely referenced and discussed by ancient authors; Plato, for example, mentions them in six of his dialogues.[lower-alpha 1] Their exact location is uncertain; they are variously stated to have been on the wall of the pronaos (forecourt), on a column, on a doorpost, on the temple front, or on the propylaea (gateway).[3]

Although the temple was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the years, the maxims appear to have persisted into the Roman era (1st century AD), at which time, according to Pliny the Elder, they were written in letters of gold.[1][4]

The maxims are as follows:

No.GreekRomanized transliteration[5]English[1][6]
001Γνῶθι σεαυτόνGnothi sauton (or se auton[7])Know thyself
002Μηδὲν ἄγανmeden aganNothing too much
003Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄταeggua/egguê para d'atêGive a pledge and trouble is at hand

These sayings were traditionally said to have originated with the Seven Sages, a legendary group of philosophers and statesmen who flourished in the 6th century BC.[8] The first known reference to the Seven Sages is in Plato's Protagoras, where they are said to have collectively authored the first two maxims.[9][10] The names of the sages are given by Plato as Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Solon, Cleobulus, Myson and Chilon; but in the works of later writers, some of these names are dropped and others added in their place. Each of the maxims was often attributed to a particular sage, and some authors, such as Demetrius of Phalerum, assigned additional sayings to the four remaining sages. There was no general agreement over which maxim belonged to which sage, but "Know thyself" was most commonly attributed to Chilon.[8][10][11]

Another popular theory held that the maxims were first spoken by the Delphic oracle, and therefore represented the wisdom of the god Apollo.[10] Clearchus of Soli, among others, attempted to reconcile the two accounts by claiming that Chilon, enquiring of the oracle what was best to be learnt, received the answer "Know thyself", and subsequently adopted the maxim as his own.[12] In all likelihood, however, the sayings were simply common proverbs of much earlier date, which gained a new significance from their prominent position on the temple.[10][13]

First maxim

The first maxim, "Know thyself", has been called "by far the most significant of the three maxims, both in ancient and modern times".[14] In its earliest appearances in ancient literature, it was interpreted to mean that one should understand one's limitations and know one's place in the social scale.[15] The first application of the phrase to self-knowledge in the modern sense occurs in Plato's Phaedrus, in which Socrates says that he has no leisure to investigate the truth behind common mythological beliefs while he has not yet discovered the truth about his own nature.[16][17] Many authors throughout history have considered knowledge of the self to involve knowledge of other people, knowledge of the universe, and/or knowledge of God; consequently, alongside its metaphysical, self-reflexive sense, the maxim has been applied in a host of different ways to problems of science, ethics, and theology.

Second maxim

In ancient Greece, the maxim "Nothing too much" was only rarely understood to mean that one should place limits on one's physical appetites, being far more commonly invoked as a reminder to avoid excessive emotion, particularly excessive grief.[18] It was also quoted by ancient authors as a warning against pride,[18] and considering its placement at the entrance to the temple, it may have been intended to convey that "man is not to exalt himself even in his piety"; in other words, that one should not make lavish sacrifices to the gods, but should humbly give what one can spare.[19][20]

The maxim has been said to have received its "ultimate expression" in Aristotle's theory of ethics, according to which every classical virtue occupies a middle place between the two extremes of excess and deficiency.[21] It is uncertain, however, whether the maxim was a direct influence on Aristotle, as it is not explicitly referenced in his Nicomachean Ethics (although it does occur twice in another of his works, the Rhetoric).[22] Several other phrases of similar import were current among Greek writers, such as "The half is more than the whole" and "Due measure is best", both of which are found in Hesiod's Works and Days (c. 700 BC).[23]

Interest in the "Nothing too much" dropped off during the medieval era, but it was frequently cited in the literature of the 16th and 17th centuries (often in its Latin form, Ne quid nimis).[24] From this time onwards, the rule of moderation enjoined by the maxim has been more frequently applied to physical pleasures than to emotional states.[25] In John Milton's Paradise Lost, for example, the archangel Michael advises Adam to "observe the rule of not too much ... in what thou eat'st and drink'st, seeking from thence due nourishment, not gluttonous delight".[26][25]

Some authors, such as 16th-century humanist Sperone Speroni, have criticized the maxim for its apparent endorsement of mediocrity.[27] Such criticism may be traced back as far as Pindar (5th century BC), who claimed that the philosophers of his day were excessive in their praise of the Delphic saying.[28] Similarly, 20th‑century essayist Paul Elmer More has argued that a too-rigorous adherence to the principle of moderation may have been the downfall of ancient Greek civilization.[29]

Third maxim

The third maxim, "Give a pledge and trouble is at hand", has been variously interpreted. The Greek word έγγύα, here translated "pledge", can mean either (a) surety given for a loan; (b) a binding oath given during a marriage ceremony; or (c) a strong affirmation of any kind.[30] Accordingly, the maxim may be a warning against any one of these things.

The correct interpretation of the maxim was being debated as early as the 1st century BC, when Diodorus Siculus discussed the question in his Bibliotheca historica.[31] In Plutarch's Septem sapientium convivium, the ambiguity of the phrase is said to have "kept many from marrying, and many from trusting, and some even from speaking".[32] Diogenes Laërtius (3rd century AD) also makes reference to the maxim in his account of the life of Pyrrho, the founder of Pyrrhonism.[33] Exploring the origins of the Pyrrhonean doctrine of philosophical skepticism, Diogenes claims that the Delphic maxims are skeptical in nature, and interprets the third maxim to mean: "Trouble attends him who affirms anything in strong terms and confidently".[34]

Analysing the various appearances of the maxim in Greek literature, Eliza Wilkins finds the opinion of the ancient authors on the meaning of έγγύα split between the two rival interpretations of "commit yourself emphatically" and "become surety". Among Latin authors, however, the maxim is universally interpreted in the latter sense, as advice against giving surety.[35]

147 maxims of Stobaeus

In the 5th-century anthology of Stobaeus, there is a list of a further 147 maxims attributed to the Seven Sages of Greece.[36]

List of maxims:
No.GreekEnglish[lower-alpha 2]
001Ἕπου θεῷFollow God
002Νόμῳ πείθουObey the law
003Θεοὺς σέβουWorship the Gods
004Γονεῖς αἰδοῦRespect your parents
005Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίουBe overcome by justice
006Γνῶθι μαθώνKnow what you have learned
007Ἀκούσας νόειPerceive what you have heard
008Σαυτὸν ἴσθιBe yourself
009Γαμεῖν μέλλεIntend to get married
010Καιρὸν γνῶθιKnow your opportunity
011Φρόνει θνητάThink as a mortal
012Ξένος ὢν ἴσθιIf you are a stranger act like one
013Ἑστίαν τίμαHonour the hearth (or Hestia)
014Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦControl yourself
015Φίλοις βοήθειHelp your friends
016Θυμοῦ κράτειControl anger
017Φρόνησιν ἄσκειExercise prudence
018Πρόνοιαν τίμαHonour providence
019Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶDo not use an oath
020Φιλίαν ἀγάπαLove friendship
021Παιδείας ἀντέχουCling to discipline
022Δόξαν δίωκεPursue honour
023Σοφίαν ζήλουLong for wisdom
024Καλὸν εὖ λέγεPraise the good
025Ψέγε μηδέναFind fault with no one
026Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήνPraise virtue
027Πρᾶττε δίκαιαPractice what is just
028Φίλοις εὐνόειBe kind to your friends
029Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνουWatch out for your enemies
030Εὐγένειαν ἄσκειExercise nobility of character
031Κακίας ἀπέχουShun evil
032Κοινὸς γίνουBe impartial
033Ἴδια φύλαττεGuard what is yours
034Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχουShun what belongs to others
035Ἄκουε πάνταListen to everyone
036Εὔφημος ἴσθιBe (religiously) silent
037Φίλῳ χαρίζουDo a favour for a friend
038Μηδὲν ἄγανNothing to excess
039Χρόνου φείδουUse time sparingly
040Ὅρα τὸ μέλλονForesee the future
041Ὕβριν μίσειDespise insolence
042Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦHave respect for suppliants
043Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζουBe accommodated in everything
044Υἱοὺς παίδευεEducate your sons
045Ἔχων χαρίζουGive what you have
046Δόλον φοβοῦFear deceit
047Εὐλόγει πάνταςSpeak well of everyone
048Φιλόσοφος γίνουBe a seeker of wisdom
049Ὅσια κρῖνεChoose what is divine
050Γνοὺς πρᾶττεAct when you know
051Φόνου ἀπέχουShun murder
052Εὔχου δυνατάPray for things possible
053Σοφοῖς χρῶConsult the wise
054Ἦθος δοκίμαζεTest the character
055Λαβὼν ἀπόδοςGive back what you have received
056Ὑφορῶ μηδέναDown-look no one
057Τέχνῃ χρῶUse your skill
058Ὃ μέλλεις, δόςDo what you mean to do
059Εὐεργεσίας τίμαHonour a benefaction
060Φθόνει μηδενίBe jealous of no one
061Φυλακῇ πρόσεχεBe on your guard
062Ἐλπίδα αἴνειPraise hope
063Διαβολὴν μίσειDespise a slanderer
064Δικαίως κτῶGain possessions justly
065Ἀγαθοὺς τίμαHonour good men
066Κριτὴν γνῶθιKnow the judge
067Γάμους κράτειMaster wedding-feasts
068Τύχην νόμιζεRecognize fortune
069Ἐγγύην φεῦγεFlee a pledge
070Ἁπλῶς διαλέγουSpeak plainly
071Ὁμοίοις χρῶAssociate with your peers
072Δαπανῶν ἄρχουGovern your expenses
073Κτώμενος ἥδουBe happy with what you have
074Αἰσχύνην σέβουRevere a sense of shame
075Χάριν ἐκτέλειFulfill a favour
076Εὐτυχίαν εὔχουPray for happiness
077Τύχην στέργεBe fond of fortune
078Ἀκούων ὅραObserve what you have heard
079Ἐργάζου κτητάWork for what you can own
080Ἔριν μίσειDespise strife
081Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρεDetest disgrace
082Γλῶτταν ἴσχεRestrain the tongue
083Ὕβριν ἀμύνουKeep yourself from insolence
084Κρῖνε δίκαιαMake just judgements
085Χρῶ χρήμασινUse what you have
086Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζεJudge incorruptibly
087Αἰτιῶ παρόνταAccuse one who is present
088Λέγε εἰδώςTell when you know
089Βίας μὴ ἔχουDo not depend on strength
090Ἀλύπως βίουLive without sorrow
091Ὁμίλει πρᾴωςLive together meekly
092Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶνFinish the race without shrinking back
093Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσινDeal kindly with everyone
094Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶDo not curse your sons
095Γυναικὸς ἄρχεRule your wife
096Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίειBenefit yourself
097Εὐπροσήγορος γίνουBe courteous
098Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷGive a timely response
099Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείαςStruggle with glory
100Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτωςAct without repenting
101Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόειRepent of sins
102Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτειControl the eye
103Βουλεύου χρόνῳGive a timely counsel
104Πρᾶττε συντόμωςAct quickly
105Φιλίαν φύλαττεGuard friendship
106Εὐγνώμων γίνουBe grateful
107Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκεPursue harmony
108Ἄρρητον κρύπτεKeep deeply the top secret
109Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦFear ruling
110Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶPursue what is profitable
111Καιρὸν προσδέχουAccept due measure
112Ἔχθρας διάλυεDo away with enmities
113Γῆρας προσδέχουAccept old age
114Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶDo not boast in might
115Εὐφημίαν ἄσκειExercise (religious) silence
116Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγεFlee enmity
117Πλούτει δικαίωςAcquire wealth justly
118Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπεDo not abandon honour
119Κακίαν μίσειDespise evil
120Κινδύνευε φρονίμωςVenture into danger prudently
121Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνεDo not tire of learning
122Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπεDo not stop to be thrifty
123Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζεAdmire oracles
124Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπαLove whom you rear
125Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχουDo not oppose someone absent
126Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦRespect an elder
127Νεώτερον δίδασκεTeach a youngster
128Πλούτῳ ἀπίστειDo not trust wealth
129Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦRespect yourself
130Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζεινDo not begin to be insolent
131Προγόνους στεφάνουCrown your ancestors
132Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδοςDie for your country
133Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθουDo not be discontented by life
134Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλαDo not make fun of the dead
135Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθουShare the load of the unfortunate
136Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶςGratify without harming
137Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦGrieve for no one
138Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γένναBeget from noble routes
139Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενίMake promises to no one
140Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκειDo not wrong the dead
141Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητόςBe well off as a mortal
142Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευεDo not trust fortune
143Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθιAs a child be well-behaved
144Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατήςAs a youth—self-disciplined
145Μέσος δίκαιοςAs of middle-aged—just
146Πρεσβύτης εὔλογοςAs an old man—sensible
147Τελευτῶν ἄλυποςOn reaching the end—without sorrow

Archaeological evidence

Stobaeus cites a certain Sosiades as his source, but the identity of Sosiades is unknown, and it was once thought that this collection of maxims was of no great antiquity.[38][39] In 1901, however, a parallel collection was discovered at Miletopolis in modern-day Turkey, inscribed on a stele dating from the 3rd or 4th century BC. The stele is broken in two places; the surviving portion carries a list of 56 maxims which closely correspond to those given by Stobaeus, and it is probable that the original text contained all 147.[39][40]

Inscription at Ai-Khanoum, 3rd century BC

Another inscription, discovered in 1966 at Ai-Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, presents the final five maxims of Stobaeus, and reports that these maxims were originally found at "holy Pytho", i.e. Delphi. The inscription, dating from the 3rd century BC, reads as follows:[41]

The stone which bears this inscription formed the base of a stele, and a small fragment of the stele itself survives. The legible text on the stele, as reconstructed by Louis Robert, reads "Ε[ὐλόγει πάντας], Φιλόσοφ[ος γίνου]", which corresponds to Stobaeus no. 47 and 48 ("Speak well of everyone; Be a seeker of wisdom").[40][43] Robert suggested that the stele and base together bore the full list of 147 maxims, with the final five having been appended to the base due to the stonecutter running out of room.[44] On the evidence of these inscriptions, it is now regarded as certain that the sayings preserved by Stobaeus were once inscribed at Delphi, and that their influence was felt not only in Greece, but throughout the wider Hellenistic world.[44][40]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Benjamin Jowett's index to his translation of the Dialogues of Plato lists six dialogues which mention the Delphic inscriptions: Charmides (164D), Protagoras (343B), Phaedrus (229E), Philebus (45E, 48C), Laws (11.923A), Alcibiades I (124B, 129A, 132C).[2]
  2. ↑ As translated by A. N. Oikonomides, who warns that his translations must be taken as "provisional", since "these thought provoking brief commandments are by no means the type of text that can be assigned easily as having one meaning."[37]
  3. ↑ The author of the inscription, "Klearchos", is often thought to be Aristotle's student, Clearchus of Soli, but this identification is unlikely.[42]

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 Wilkins, Eliza G. (1929). The Delphic Maxims in Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1.
  2. ↑ Jowett, Benjamin (1892). The Dialogues of Plato. Vol. 5. Macmillan and Co. p. 445.
  3. ↑ Wilkins 1929, p. 3
  4. ↑ Pliny the Elder. "Natural History". 7.32 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  5. ↑ Moore, Christopher (2020). Calling Philosophers Names: On the Origin of a Discipline. Princeton University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-691-23022-1.
  6. ↑ Stuhr, John J. (2016). "The Unexamined Life and Surface Pleasures". The Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 30 (2): 163–174. doi:10.5325/jspecphil.30.2.0163. ISSN 0891-625X. JSTOR 10.5325/jspecphil.30.2.0163.
  7. ↑ Blackburn, Simon (2016). The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-19-873530-4.
  8. 1 2 Parke, H.; Wormell, D. (1956). The Delphic Oracle. Vol. 1. Basil Blackwell. p. 387.
  9. ↑ Plato. "Protagoras". 343a–343b – via Perseus Digital Library.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Wilkins 1929, pp. 8–9
  11. ↑ Verhasselt, Gertjan (2022). "The Seven Sages and the Inscription of Ai Khanoum". In Mayhew, Robert; Mirhady, David C. (eds.). Clearchus of Soli: Text, Translation and Discussion. Routledge. p. 521.
  12. ↑ Verhasselt 2022, pp. 520, 523
  13. ↑ Parke & Wormell 1956, p. 389
  14. ↑ Wilkins 1929, p. 49
  15. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 49–52
  16. ↑ Plato. "Phaedrus". 229e–230a – via Perseus Digital Library.
  17. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 58–59
  18. 1 2 Wilkins 1929, p. 26
  19. ↑ Nilsson, Martin P. (1949). A History of Greek Religion. Translated by Fielden, F. J. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–198.
  20. ↑ Castro, David Hernández (2019). "Empedocles without Horseshoes: Delphi's Criticism of Large Sacrifices". Symposion. 6 (2): 139. doi:10.5840/symposion20196210.
  21. ↑ More, Paul Elmer (1905). "Delphi and Greek Literature". Shelburne Essays. 2nd series. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 199.
  22. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 19, 22
  23. ↑ Wilkins 1929, p. 19
  24. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 26–28
  25. 1 2 Wilkins 1929, pp. 38–39
  26. ↑ Milton, John (1674). Paradise Lost (2nd ed.). Book XI, lines 530–533.
  27. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 44–47
  28. ↑ Wilkins 1929, pp. 20, 26
  29. ↑ More 1905, pp. 217–218
  30. ↑ Wilkins, Eliza G. (April 1927). "Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄτα in literature". Classical Philology. 22 (2): 122.
  31. ↑ Diodorus Siculus. "Bibliotheca historica". 9.10.4–5 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  32. ↑ Plutarch. "Septem sapientium convivium". Section 21 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  33. ↑ Diogenes Laërtius. "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers". 9.71 – via Wikisource.
  34. ↑ Wilkins 1927, p. 129
  35. ↑ Wilkins 1927, p. 130
  36. ↑ Wachsmuth, Kurt; Hense, Otto, eds. (1884). Joannis Stobaei Anthologium (in Latin). Vol. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 125–128.
  37. ↑ Oikonomides, A. N. (Summer 1987). "Records of 'The Commandments of the Seven Wise Men' in the 3rd c. B.C.". The Classical Bulletin. 63 (3): 67–76.
  38. ↑ Petzl, Georg (2017). "Philosophical Stones". In Perilli, L.; Taormina, D. P. (eds.). Ancient Philosophy: Textual Paths and Historical Explorations. Routledge. pp. 66–69. ISBN 9781351716031.
  39. 1 2 Judge, E. A. (1998). "Ancient Beginnings of the Modern World". In Hillard, T. W.; Kearsley, R. A.; Nixon, C. E. V.; Nobbs, A. M. (eds.). Ancient History in a Modern University. Vol. 2. William B. Eerdmans. pp. 473–476. ISBN 0-8028-3841-3.
  40. 1 2 3 Oikonomides, A. N. (1980). "The Lost Delphic Inscription with the Commandments of the Seven and P. Univ. Athen 2782". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 37: 179–183. JSTOR 20185842.
  41. ↑ Wallace, Shane (October 2016). "Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries". Greece & Rome. Second Series. 63 (2): 215. doi:10.1017/S0017383516000073. JSTOR 26776786.
  42. ↑ Wallace 2016, p. 217
  43. ↑ Robert, Louis (1968). "De Delphes à l'Oxus, inscriptions grecques nouvelles de la Bactriane". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 112 (3): 430.
  44. 1 2 Kurke, Leslie (2011). Aesopic Conversations. Princeton University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-691-14457-3.
  • "Delphic Maxims" at Hellenion – alternative English translation of the 147 maxims
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