Early history

Himalayas has been a melting pot of diverse tribes and cultures since antiquity. The presence of highly-rich majority Magar culture with a complex of Kham Magar language of Sino-Tibetan language family suggests its favorable growth in Eastern Rukum south of Himalayas.^[17] In addition to this, being on the northern corridor of the Indian sub-continent, the region was also on the radius of the Indus valley civilization and influences of various warring tribes and empires such as Kirata Kingdom, Kushan Empire (Ancient Greek), Gupta Empire, Maurya Empire, Nanda Empire, Karkota Empire, Utpala dynasty, Tibetan Empire and Khasa Kingdom.^[18] Therefore, there seems to have formed a synthesis of shamanism, Bon, Buddhism, Masto worship, and Hinduism (in the later phase) in the region over a stretch of time. After the initial Muslim conquests spanning out of Arabian lands, western and central Himalayas also served as the refuge and protection to numerous non-Muslims.^[19] With east-west Dhorpatan valley south of the Himalayas, eastern Rukum was also a historic migration route and crossroad for these tribes to move eastwards.

Medieval History

The Lumbini pillar Medieval inscription of Khasa King Ripu Malla: ""Om mani padme hum May Prince Ripu Malla be long victorious (1312 CE)"

A village in Eastern Rukum

On the north of this region (present neighbour Dolpa), Buddhism hugely flourished with the arrival of a famous 8th century Buddhist master Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) and other Buddhist lamas who meditated in the region and consecrated many places.^[20] Politically, after 11th century, the archeological records suggests that the region was ruled by the Khasa Kingdom (Tibetan: Ya rtse Kingdom) rulers who were predominantly oriented to shamanism and Buddhism. In their heyday, the kingdom had dominion over large portion of western Tibet and western Nepal^[21] and was geographically and historically linked with Central Asia and western Tibet.^[22] The initial Khasa rulers were devout Buddhists themselves, evident by a pilgrimage of King Ripumalla to Lumbini,^[23] where he left an inscription on the Ashoka pillar dated around 1312 CE with six-syllable mantra of Buddhism and his wish "Om mani padme hum: May Prince Ripu Malla be long victorious". With time as contacts with the south grew stronger, Hinduism later made a stronghold among the rulers of the region. Both the western Nepalese as well as Tibetan chronicles mention same kings as their "Kings of West Tibet" as well as " Kings of Khasa Kingdom".^[23]

The following list narrates the names of the Khasa kings, in Nepali and Tibetan language:

When the Khasa kingdom disintegrated, one of their descendants named Pitambar is recorded to have ruled the region after defeating the Magar King known as Bokshe Jad and the region subsequently disintegrated into further principalities in the incoming generations until their integration into modern Nepal (1777-1799) by Shah kings.^[25][26]

Modern history

With the conquest of the district as a part of the national unification campaign, the region was merged with the kingdom of Nepal during the time of Bahadur Shah of Nepal and Rana Bahadur Shah (1777-1799). Before 1975, substantial eastern portion was territorially merged with Palpa district during Rana dynasty and with Baglung District or Dolpa District.^[14][15]

King Rana Bahadur Shah unified the region into modern Nepal (1777-1799)

During the centuries long Shah dynasty and Rana Dynasty rule of Nepal, numerous young women of this region were made Queens (Bada Maharani) and wives of the dynasties through royal marriages, locally known as "Dola Palne" tradition such as:^[27] Queen Purna Kumari Devi,^[28] the wife of a Rana Prime Minister; Queen Karma Kumari Devi, the wife of Prime Minister Dev Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana and foster mother of Prime Minister Juddha Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana.^[27] In other cases, the marriages of royal princesses were made with the formerly ruling families of this region, for instance, the marriage of Shova Rajya Lakshmi Devi (Princess Shova Shahi of Nepal), the sister of King Birendra of Nepal and the youngest daughter of king Mahendra of Nepal. After Princess Shova Rajya Lakshmi Devi visited the birth-place of her husband in Bahunthana (Rukumkot), the name of the village was changed to "Shova."^[29] These forms of royal marriages created influential feudal families in the region who were well connected with the rulers in Kathmandu by blood or marriages and the majority peasants in the districts were socially and politically sub-ordinate.

Hashish Ban of 1976

Once considered one of the most prosperous region of the western Nepalese hills, being one of the principal producers of world renowned Nepali hashish, eastern Rukum was among the heartland of legendary cannabis production providing sufficient to the outside market, even commanding premiums in India during World War II. This abundance was reflected in the dressings of local Magar women who were once wearing silver coin necklaces and gold jewelries. The plant's bark was used to make ropes, fibers to make bags and its fine threads were used in clothing and hashish was grown and collected as any other product instead of narcotics.^[29]

Shiva Temple built by Rana Queen of Nepal, Rani Purna Kumari Devi, who was born in Eastern Rukum.

This social affluence came to an abrupt halt in 1976 when the Government of Nepal enacted the Drug Trafficking and Abuse Act, largely from the political pressure of the United States of America and Narcotics International, lobbied by the president Richard Nixon. The Nepalese government responded with Drug Trafficking and Abuse Act banning marijuana and hashish in return for American economic aids projects (USAID) in this region - leading to numerous arrests, private land property where marijuana was grown was revoked and given back to the state and farmers were forced to eradicate their marijuana fields before the activity of USAID projects.^[30] Although King Birendra made two visits in 1983 and 1988 and promised further economic aid in the region, there was a perception that the actual beneficiaries of the development aids were few elites instead of the local majority, creating further spike in inequality.^[29]

Demographics

At the time of the 2011 Nepal census, Eastern Rukum District had a population of 53,184.

As their first language, 69.1% spoke Nepali, 19.1% Magar, 10.7% Kham, 0.7% Gurung, 0.1% Doteli and 0.2% other languages as their first language.^[37]

Ethnicity/caste: 50.7% were Magar, 19.2% Chhetri, 17.3% Kami, 4.1% Thakuri, 3.2% Damai/Dholi, 1.7% Hill Brahmin, 1.3% Gurung, 0.8% Newar, 0.5% Sarki, 0.3% Badi, 0.2% Chhantyal, 0.2% Thakali, 0.1% Chamar/Harijan/Ram, 0.1% other Dalit, 0.1% Kurmi, 0.1% Sanyasi/Dasnami and 0.2% others.^[38]

Religion: 91.8% were Hindu, 3.7% Christian, 2.2% Buddhist, 0.1% Prakriti and 2.1% others.^[39]

Literacy: 53.9% could read and write, 3.0% could only read and 43.1% could neither read nor write.^[40]

Magars make up the majority of Eastern Rukum demography (51%)

Magars make up the majority of the population in Eastern Rukum.^[13] After Palpa district (53% Magar population), Eastern Rukum has the second-largest Magar population in Nepal as a percentage of the total population (51%), followed by Rolpa (43%). The table highlights the demographics of the district (National Data Profile:2020).^[13]

Dhorpatan Reserve

Dhorpatan Reserve

A large reserve area named Dhorpatan Reserve in the district was declared in 1987 with subsequent objective of protection and management of high altitude ecosystem in western Nepal. The reserve extends along the Dhaulagiri Himalayan Range of eastern Rukum, Myagdi and Baglung and covers 1325 square kilometers. Putha, Churen and Gurja Himal extend over the northern boundary of the reserve.^[41] Eastern Rukum itself occupies over sixty percentage territory of the reserve.

Dhaulagiri Mountains

Dhaulagiri mountain range extends from north-west to north-east of Eastern Rukum district and then continues eastward to its highest elevation, Dhaulagiri I, the 7th highest mountain in the world. The Kali Gandaki river gorge separates Dhaulagiri range and Annapurna range forming two mountain ranges in western Nepal.^[42]

Mt. Putha (Dhaulagiri VII) / Putha Hiunchuli (7,246m)

All along the Dhaulagiri range, the prominent mountains in the district are Mt. Putha Hiunchuli (Dhaulagiri VII) and Mount Sisne. Mount Putha is also the tallest mountain of Lumbini Province situated in the west end of Dhaulagiri II mountain chain, at an elevation of 7,246 meters. It was first climbed in 1954 by J. O. M. Roberts and Ang Nyima Sherpa.^[43]

Mt Sisne (5,849m)

Another prominent mountain is Mount Sisne at the north. Locally known as Mount Sisne or Murkatta Himal, the mountain has an elevation of 5,849 meters. Mount Sisne was frequently featured in the literatures of civil war, as a symbol of the people's revolution and became an iconic landmark to revolutionaries during the 1996–2006 Nepal Civil War. In 2013, the mountain was first successfully ascended by a Nepalese expedition led by Man Bahadur Khatri.^[44]

Rukmini Lake, named after Krishna's consort in the Mahābhārata

Water System

Most of the district is drained by west-flowing tributaries such as Uttar Ganga draining Dhorpatan Valley and to the north of that the Sani Bheri draining southern slopes of the western Dhaulagiri Himalaya.

West Rapti river has its source in Eastern Rukum in the Mahabharata range of the lesser himalayas.^[4] The river drains in Nepal and into Uttar Pradesh state in India before joining Ghaghara which ultimately joins the Ganges. The West Rapti river is also associated with the ethnic groups of Nepal – Kham Magar in the highlands and Tharu in the Inner Terai. The river has also been associated with the ancient river Airavati (also known as Aciravati /Achirvati) and as Eravai in Jainism.^[47][48] In Buddhism, the ancient city of Sravasti was situated in the western bank of Achirvati where the Buddha spent most of his post-enlightenment life.^[48]

West Rapti river (ancient Achirvati river), one of the five sacred river of Buddhism, has its source near Rukumkot in the Mahabharata range

Among many lakes, Rukmini Lake has been the centerpeice in the district. Named after Rukmini, the consort of Krishna, Rukmini Lake is also known as Lotus Lake (Nepali: Kamal Taal) because of its fullness with lotus flowers (Nelumbo nucifera). The lake holds a religious and sacred importance to the locals due to which huge gathering occurs during the festivals of Maha Shivaratri, Dashain, Maghe Sankranti and Haritalika Teej.

Electricity

As a district with high hydro-electricity potential due to down streaming rivers and plenty of water bodies, there have been efforts to maximise energy potential in the district. With this objective, 27 small-to-medium scale hydro-power stations have been established producing 1,210 KW of electricity.^[52] The district's largest hydro-power station, run-of-river type, of 5 MW is still under construction with a cost of Rs 1 Billion.^[53] In addition to these stations, there are existing water mills and solar systems to garner electricity.

Agriculture and rare medicinal herbs

Eastern Rukum exports Nepalese Lokta paper (A Restaurant menu made with lokta)

The six-climatic mixture of upper tropical, sub-tropical, alpine, sub-alpine, temperate and nival climates in the district have given way to the production of radish, potato, Pidalu, onion, rayo, garlic, turmeric, ginger, tomato, persimmon, golbheda, ramatoria, bitter gourd, brinjal, chillies, peas, carrot, cauliflower, cabbage, cucumber, squash, bananas, mango, orange, lemon, season, apple, pear, arubkhada, okhar etc. In addition to these vegetables and fruits, the medicinal herbs such as Yarsagumba, Panchaole, Kurilo, Timur, Cinnamon, Gurjo, Katuki, Pangar, Badalpate, Bojo, Harro, Amla, Padamchal, Satuwa, Halhale, Kumkum, Chiraito, Jatamasi, Bhalayo etc. are procured.^[54] The most famous among them, Yarsagumba (known as Ophiocordyceps Sinensis) is classified as a medicinal mushroom with a long usage in the Himalayan region, Tibetan and Chinese medicine. In addition, the crops such as paddy, wheat, maize, millet, barley, uva, fapar etc. are grown in their season and constitute the staple food diet as well.

Minerals

A Himalayan sub-region, the region has been found conducive for the mining of copper, glass, coal, iron, chalk, shilajita and Sulphur. In addition to this, non-metallic ore such as Dolomite have been discovered.

Nepalese paper

As a paper producing district, due to the availability of Lokta plants, the fibrous inner bark of these high altitude evergreen shrubs are used to produce paper in Eastern Rukum. These papers are hand-made and produced in batches, whereby each batch processes about 12.5 kg of raw materials. As one of the rare Nepalese products, all the supply chain elements are based on local resources which are then ultimately made into paper products and exported to Europe and North America.^[55]

Handmade lokta paper bags

The chief exports from the district are vegetables, seeds, Nepalese paper, blankets, threads and mineral.^[26]

Guerilla Trek

Nepal Tourism Board has designated official trekking route called Guerilla Trek which is an tourism adventure-track following the trails of guerillas (Maoist revolutionaries) during the ten-year war (Nepalese Civil War) against the royal government, in their rebel heartland in the majority Magars villages. Trekkers can retrace the route of the fighters in this district as well as neighbouring northern Rolpa District, Baglung District and Myagdi District and experience traditional Magar culture.^[56]

Other important tracks of the route are Chunwang, the landmark meeting place of the party leadership in eastern Rukum and Thabang (6480 ft, 1975 m), the cradle of the war of Rolpa where the Maoists had almost unanimous support and which suffered some of the heaviest fighting during the war.^[10]

Gateway to Dolpa

Often considered a gateway to Dolpa, the Jangla Pass at 4,538 meters is the edge of the Dhorpatan Reserve and provides a passage to Dolpa.^[57] Dolpa, a district hidden from globalisation, is more oriented to Tibetan Buddhism and is full of hidden valleys and ancient Buddhist shrines some of whom are associated with 8th century master Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava). A reminiscence of ancient Tibet, Dolpo is still monitored and a pass is required for the tourists.

Eastern Rukum is also a gateway to Dolpa

An 8th century Buddhist temple at Dolpo

Kham Magar Culture

Perhaps due to relative isolation in high altitudes, Magars in eastern Rukum have been able to retain their indigenous language and cultures which have become a center point of attraction. The peculiarly designed houses and their festivals are peculiar, such as the Bhume Naach (Earth Dance) which is performed around a fire, representing Earth as a mother and protector. The dance normally takes place from mid-May to mid-June. Men dance on the center and the women dancers encircle them - the outer circle of women symbolising the mother and protection to the community as well as gratitude to mother earth.^[51]