Early history

The first record of common hemp seeds brought to Australia was with the First Fleet at the request of Sir Joseph Banks, who marked the cargo "for commerce" in the hope that hemp would be produced commercially in the new colony. For 150 years, early governments in Australia actively supported the growing of hemp with gifts of land and other grants,^[7] and the consumption of cannabis in Australia in the 19th century was believed to be widespread.^[8][9]

Marcus Clarke, author of the great Australian novel For the Term of his Natural Life, experimented with cannabis as an aid to writing. A short story he wrote, Cannabis Indica, was written under the influence of cannabis.^[7] Members of Melbourne's bohemian Yorrick Club (of which Clarke was a member) were notorious cannabis users.^[7] Until the late 19th century, "Cigares De Joy" (cannabis cigarettes) were widely available; these claimed to "give immediate relief in cases of asthma, cough, bronchitis, hay-fever, influenza [and] shortness of breath".^[8]

Like many developed nations, Australia first responded to the issue of cannabis use in the 1920s, acting as a signatory to the 1925 Geneva Convention on Opium and Other Drugs that saw the use of cannabis restricted for medicinal and scientific purposes only. Cannabis was grouped with morphine, cocaine and heroin, despite cannabis' use as a medicine or remedy in Australia at the time.^[10]

This prohibition model was applied with little research into cannabis use in Australia. Most drug-related laws enacted by jurisdictions of Australia during this time were related to opium^[11] but, as a result of pressure from the United Kingdom, Australia began implementing local laws consistent with the Geneva Convention.

The Australian Capital Territory was the first jurisdiction to outlaw cannabis in 1926, followed by Victoria (1927), South Australia (1934), New South Wales (1935), Queensland (1937), Western Australia (1950), and Tasmania (1959).^[12]

In 1938, the newspaper Smith's Weekly ran a Reefer Madness-style shock campaign, carrying a headline reading, "New Drug that Maddens Victims".^[13] This campaign introduced the word "marijuana" to Australia. It described marijuana as "an evil sex drug that causes its victims to behave like raving sex maniacs", "the dreaded sex drug marijuana" and "The Biggest Gateway Drug". The campaign was only moderately successful; it failed to instill the generation with false negative effects of the drug and its impact on society, it did not stop an increase in demand and usage.^[7]

1960s

The 1960s saw an increase in the use of cannabis, heroin and LSD as part of political and social opposition to the Vietnam War, and this resulted in most Australian states gradually moving to a prohibitionist and criminal-justice orientation.^[14] Right-wing Australian politicians like Queensland premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen and NSW premier Robert Askin supported Nixon's War on Drugs in America, calling for a crackdown on Australian youth culture. Following the fall of the Whitlam government in 1975, these politicians launched a Nixon-style war on drugs in Australia.^[15]

In the late 1960s, organised drug trafficking developed in Sydney with the arrival of US servicemen on leave from the Vietnam War, and the local drug markets expanded to meet their requirements.^[14] The 1970s were considered the first "decade of drugs", marked by the public's growing financial capacity to support drug use and an increase in young people affected by unemployment. As a result, the 1970s were also the decade of Royal Commissions and inquiries to deal with the "drug problem".^[14]

In 1964, with the discovery of hundreds of acres of wild hemp growing in the Hunter Valley in NSW, authorities responded with a massive eradication campaign. However, the baby-boomers of the 60s responded to the "evil threat" in a very different manner to the previous generation, with groups of surfers and hippies flocking to the Hunter Region in search of the wild weed which was described in reports as "a powerful psychoactive aphrodisiac".^[16] These groups became known as the Weed Raiders—legendary characters, bearing tales of plants up to three metres tall.^[7]

1970s–1980s

In 1973, tribes of hippies attended the Aquarius Festival in the Northern NSW town of Nimbin. When police tried to arrest revellers who were openly smoking marijuana, the crowd of 6,000 rioted. Nimbin is home to the Hemp Embassy, founded by activist pioneer Michael Balderstone, and the MardiGrass, an annual protest dedicated to cannabis which began in 1993.^[16]

According to Jiggens,^[17] by 1977 there was talk of decriminalisation of cannabis in New South Wales, following the decriminalisation of cannabis in nine US states. The Joint Committee upon Drugs of the NSW Parliament recommended the removal of jail sentences for personal use of cannabis, and NSW Premier Neville Wran outlined a plan to remove jail sentences for people convicted and for possessing cannabis for personal use. He said that cannabis use was widespread and that "tens of thousands of parents whose sons and daughters smoke marijuana" would not want their children to carry "the stigma of being a jailed, convicted criminal".^[17]

The disappearance of local political and community leader Donald Mackay in Griffith, NSW, in July 1977 placed the issue of the nexus between illicit drug production, organised crime and police corruption before the public; this was due to Mackay's revelations about large-scale marijuana growing in the Riverina area. His inquiries led to the largest cannabis seizure in Australian history at Coleambally, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Griffith, in November 1975. The plantation spread over 31 acres (13 ha) and was estimated to be capable of producing 60 tonnes of cannabis.^[17] The NSW Royal Commission into Drug Trafficking (the Woodward Inquiry) was sparked by Mackay's disappearance, and the story was brought to life as an acclaimed television mini-series Underbelly: A Tale of Two Cities.^[14]

In August 1976, NSW Police conducted a predawn raid on the Tuntable Falls Co-operative, located just south of Nimbin; a few weeks later, the Cedar Bay commune, located in far northern Queensland, was raided by Queensland Police. Joh Bjelke-Petersen defended the police action (including the burning of houses on the commune), declaring he was "tough on drugs". His accomplice in the Cedar Bay raid was the young John Howard (then Minister for Business), who later served as Prime Minister from 1996 to 2007.^[15] This would develop into an international news story.

In terms of the broader population, cannabis was not widely used in Australia until the 1970s.^[18] Legislation reflected increased usage of cannabis; in 1985, the National Campaign Against Drug Abuse was introduced, which was an assessment of illicit drug use among the general population. Prior to 1985, it was concluded that cannabis use amongst Australians rose from the early 1970s throughout the 1980s.^[19]

Donnelly and Hall^[19] report that in a survey conducted in 1973, 22% of Australians aged 20–29 years reported ever using cannabis. This rose to 56% in 1985, and school surveys show a marked increase in cannabis use during the 1970s and 1980s. The rise in the use of cannabis continued into the 1990s with the 1998 household survey recording the highest prevalence of cannabis use, with 39% of those surveyed using cannabis at least once and 18% reporting cannabis use in the past year.^[20] By 2001, the lifetime rate had fallen to one-third of the population.

The 1978 NSW Joint Parliamentary Committee Upon Drugs supported the decriminalisation of cannabis; under the proposal, personal use of cannabis would no longer be an offence and users would be given bonds and probation. Trafficking in cannabis would carry severe penalties.^[14] However, the 1979 Australian Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drugs recommended against decriminalisation, concluding that such a step would contravene the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and lead to calls for the decriminalisation of other drugs. The recommendation was that the consideration of decriminalisation be delayed for another 10 years.^[14]

In 1985, against a backdrop of growing awareness at community and government levels of illicit drug use, the National Campaign Against Drug Abuse (NCADA), was launched.^[14]

Since 1985, the national drug policy in Australia has been based on the principle of criminalisation and harm minimisation; the National Campaign against Drug Abuse has since become the National Drug Strategy. The National Cannabis Strategy 2006–2009 was endorsed in 2006.

In 1986, South Australia adopted an expiation notice scheme for possession and cultivation of small amounts of cannabis for adult offenders. Under the scheme, if the fine issued under the expiation notice is paid then no conviction is recorded and Juveniles are dealt with in the children's court.^[21]

In 1989, the Parliamentary Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority released a report titled Drugs, Crime, and Society, which stated that,  "If the aim of the policy (of prohibition) was to reduce the use of prohibited substances, or even to minimise access to them, it has clearly failed".^[22]

1990s

In 1990, the commonwealth government ratified the United Nations Convention on Illicit Trafficking in Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances via the Crimes (Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances) Act 1990.^[23]

In 1991, the ACT Legislative Assembly Select Committee on HIV, Illegal Drugs and Prostitution published a report titled Marijuana and Other Illegal Drugs, the committee recommended that possession and cultivation of small amounts of cannabis no longer be an offence. The committees recommendations were not adopted,^[24] instead the Drugs of Dependence (Amendment) Act 1992 created simple cannabis offences for both adults and juveniles. Under the act a simple cannabis offence results in a fine which if paid within 60 days, means that no conviction will be recorded.^[25]

In 1994, the Australian National Task Force on Cannabis formed under the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy,^[26] recommended the government develop a national cannabis policy imposing civil penalties for personal use.^[27] The Council did not accept the task force's key recommendation, for reasons that are unknown because their deliberations are secret.^[5] Although the NTFC's research and accompanying reviews were still published.^[5]

In December 1995, Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett established the Premier's Drug Advisory Council which published a report titled Drugs and Our Community on 10 April 1996. The council recommended that possession and cultivation of small amounts of cannabis no longer be an offence, "convictions for the possession of small amounts of marijuana should be expunged from a person's criminal record", "use and possession of heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and cannabis products other than  marijuana should remain an offence. However, the penalty for a first offence should be a caution and referral to a treatment service". The government did not adopt all of the recommendations,^[28] instead a system of cautions for minor cannabis offenders that would see first time offenders referred to a treatment or education service was introduced.^[29]

In 1995, the Western Australian Government Task Force on Drug Abuse published a report titled Protecting the Community. The task force stated "There should be a major emphasis on law enforcement" and that "Law enforcement should be underpinned by clear and unequivocal opposition to all forms of illicit drug use". The task force recommended increased powers for police.^[30]

In 1995, the South Australian legislative Councils Select committee on the control and illegal use of drugs of dependence released a report recommending that, "where a person does not pay a cannabis expiation notice, no criminal conviction should be recorded" and that the South Australian government "should enact laws to regulate the cultivation and sale of cannabis, in order to combat black market and criminal activity associated with the distribution and sale of cannabis.^[31]

On 28 February 1996, the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly passed the Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 1996. The amendments allow for police to use discretion to issue an infringement notice to an adult who is in possession of or is cultivating small amounts of cannabis.^[32] In his Second Reading Speech on the act, the Northern Territory Attorney-General, Steve Hatton stated "the personal possession of even the smallest amount of cannabis will remain an offence under Northern Territory law, and police will retain the discretion to prosecute the possession of cannabis through the courts. However, the government is prepared to face the reality that the possession and use of cannabis is widespread in the community, regardless of the penalties that have been imposed in relation to its use... The government's view is that, in the situation where no other person is being harmed as a result of the conduct of the offender, a criminal conviction for such behaviour is disproportionate. It is the government's view that it is a waste of police resources to insist on the prosecution of adult offenders before the courts." The Act commenced on 1 July 1996.^[33]

In 1998, Victoria became the first Australian State to pass legislation allowing for the commercial production of industrial hemp, under license, followed by Queensland, also under license in the same year. The Drugs Misuse Act 1986 and the Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987 regulate the commercial production of industrial hemp in Queensland.^[34]

2000–2012

According to Donnelly and Hall,^[19] although changes in willingness to divulge illicit drug use and changing survey protocol and design are likely to have contributed to the change in observed prevalence, the extent and consistency of the increase suggests that an actual rise in cannabis use has occurred. Various polls conducted suggest that the Australian public support legalizing marijuana.^[35][36][37] The 2001 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board noted that hydroponic cultivation of cannabis in Australia was increasing, as outdoor cultivation was decreasing.^[38]

Between 13–17 August 2001, then Western Australian premier Geoff Gallop held a Community Drug Summit. The summit produced 45 recommendations in relation to drug policy including cannabis, one such recommendation related to a  "prohibition with civil penalties scheme^[39] ".

The Australian Capital Territory government passed the Hemp Fibre Industry Facilitation Act and the Western Australian government passed the Industrial Hemp Act in 2004 allowing for the commercial production of industrial hemp under license.^[40][34]

On 22 March 2004, the Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme commenced in Western Australia under the Gallop-led government.^[41].

The Hemp Industry Act 2008, allowed for the commercial production of industrial hemp in NSW, under license.^[42]

In 2010, in the media details, a hemp grower on the Northern Beaches of Sydney who has legally grown 500 hemp plants in his backyard.^[43] The Sydney Morning Herald describes cultivator Richard Friar as a hemp evangelist—a firm believer in the world-changing potential of cannabis, which can be used in everything from food to fabrics and building materials.^[43] With permission from the NSW Department of Primary Industries, Friar and his wife are part of a pilot project aimed at educating farmers to the benefits of growing hemp for its by-products from food to fabric. The author also notes that, in December 2009, Friar applied to Food Standards Australia New Zealand for permission to sell the seed for human consumption; approval is expected.^[43] In 2012, hemp seeds and protein are readily available for purchase in health food stores, but with labels that say the product is not for human consumption.

In 2011, following a long campaign the CIN scheme introduced under the Gallop led government was repealed under the Barnett government. When the scheme was initially introduced in 2003 Barnett stated Young people will lose their lives because of this legislation...."I know that sounds dramatic, but it is a fact." The move was reportedly part of a "tough on crime" approach.^[44]

In November 2012, Sativex, an oromucosal spray containing cannabinoids, was included in the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods for the treatment of muscle spasticity related to multiple sclerosis.^[45]

2012–2021

In 2015, Tasmania passed the Industrial Hemp Act allowing for the commercial production of industrial hemp under license.^[46]

On 25 June 2015, the Senate referred an inquiry into personal choice and community impacts to the Senate Economics References Committee for inquiry and report by 13 June 2016. Due to the general election on 2 July 2016, this inquiry lapsed and was subsequently not re-referred in the 45th Parliament. The committee tabled an interim Interim Report Into The Sale & Use Of Marijuana & Associated Products in May 2016, which recommended that, "the Australian Government, in conjunction with the states and territories, undertake an objective assessment of prohibition, decriminalisation, limited deregulation and legalisation, including a full cost-benefit analysis, based on the outcomes of these options in other parts of the world".^[47]

On 17 October 2015, the Federal Government announced that it would legalise the commercial growing of cannabis for medicinal and scientific purposes. On 24 February 2016, the Australian parliament made amendments to the Narcotic Drugs Act that legalised the commercial growing of cannabis for medicinal and scientific purposes.

On 12 November 2017, the commercial production of industrial hemp was allowed for, under license, in South Australia, under the Industrial Hemp Act 2017.^[48][49] On the same day the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) made Hemp seeds legal for human consumption in Australia.^[4]

On 9 May 2018, Senator David Leyonhjelm introduced a Bill to allow states to remove Commonwealth barriers to the legalisation, regulation and taxation of cannabis,^[50] Senator Leyonhjelm's main argument against the prohibition of cannabis use was that ‘adults should be free to make their own choices as long as they do not harm others’.^[51] Both major parties at the time and One Nation did not support the bill.^[52] The bill lapsed at the end of parliament on 1 July 2019 after the second debate on 15 October 2018.^[50]

In September 2018, the Queensland Government instructed the Queensland Productivity Commission to undertake an Inquiry into imprisonment and recidivism in Queensland, the final report was sent to the Queensland Government on 1 August 2019 and publicly released on 31 January 2020 which recommended a staged reform to legalise cannabis.^[53] Although the Palaszczuk Queensland Labor Party led state government rejected the recommendations of its own commission and said it had no plans to alter any laws around cannabis.^[54]

On 17 October 2018, the Western Australia Legislative Council established the Select Committee into Alternate Approaches to Reducing Illicit Drug Use and its Effects on the Community. The Committee inquired into approaches to reducing harm from illicit drug use in other jurisdictions and compared their effectiveness to the approaches currently used in Western Australia. In November 2019, the committee published a report titled Help, Not Handcuffs: Evidence-based Approaches To Reducing Harm From Illicit Drug Use. The committee made a number of recommendations including that "criminal penalties for the use and possession of drugs for personal use are replaced with administrative penalties", drug use is treated primarily as a health issue and "a health-based response to the use and possession of drugs makes provision for the cultivation of cannabis for personal use". The recommendations were rejected by the McGowan, Labor led state government minutes after the report was publicly released, stating, "We are not going to soften our approach to illicit drug use".^[55]

On 27 November 2018, Richard Di Natale introduced The Australian Cannabis Agency Bill to regulate the production and distribution of recreational cannabis.^[56] Senator Di Natale said "it was more harmful to continue banning the use of cannabis, calling on Australia to "get real". And that "As someone who was a drug and alcohol doctor, I've seen how damaging the tough on drugs approach is to people".^[57]

On 20 February 2019, the ACT Legislative Assembly passed a motion to refer the Drugs of Dependence (Personal Cannabis Use) Amendment Bill 2018 (Bill) to the Standing Committee on Health, Ageing and Community Services (Committee) for inquiry.^[58] The committee reported on 6 June 2019 and recommended that the bill be passed, as well as a number of other recommendations, that were adopted, the committee also recommend that the ACT government work with ACT policing to determine a cannabis driving policy that tests for impairment, although this recommendation was not adopted.^[59] The Personal Cannabis Use Bill was passed on 25 September 2019, new laws came into effect on 31 January 2020, possession of small amounts of cannabis and one or two plants remains an offence under the Drugs of Dependence Act, however the Act creates exceptions for persons aged over the age of eighteen, allowing for possession of up to 50 grams of dry material, 150 grams of wet material, and cultivation of 2 plants per individual and up to 4 plants per household.^[60] Those under the age of 18 are not exempt people under the amendments and police officers hold ultimate direction to issue persons under the age of 18 a SCON(Simple Cannabis Offence Notice) or divert them to a drug and alcohol diversion program, If the SCON fine is paid within 60 days, no conviction will be recorded, failure to pay the penalty order may result in proceedings before the court.^[61] Under the changes it is also prohibited to use cannabis in a public place,^[5] expose a child or young person to cannabis smoke, store cannabis where children can reach it, grow cannabis using hydroponics or artificial cultivation, grow plants where they can be accessed by the public, share or give cannabis as a gift to another person, or to drive with any cannabis in your system, for people aged under 18 to grow, possess, or use cannabis.^[62] To assess the impact of the changes, a review will be conducted by the territory government within three years.^[63]

On 31 May 2019, the Victorian legislative council instructed the Legal and Social Issues Committee to open an inquiry into the use of cannabis^[64] to examine access to and use of cannabis in Victoria, such as ways to prevent children and young people accessing and using cannabis, prevent criminal activity relating to the illegal cannabis trade in Victoria and  protecting public health and public safety in relation to the use of cannabis in Victoria. The committee was also instructed to assess successful models from international jurisdictions and consider how the outcomes may be adapted for Victoria. The committee opened submissions from the public on 18 May 2020 with a closing date for submissions of 31 August 2020.^[65] On 5 August 2021 the commission tabled a report in parliament. The Committee received 1,475 written submissions, held 28 public hearings over 7 days, spoke to a range experts covering various areas of expertise, the police, members of the community,  people who use cannabis and held a Youth Forum at Parliament House to hear the views of and first hand experiences of those under the age of 25. The report made a number of recommendations including that "the Victorian Government investigates the impacts of legalising cannabis for adult personal use in Victoria" and "That the Victorian Government reviews existing drug driving offences relating to cannabis." The committee stated "this should include a consideration of alternative methods that could be used for detection and measuring impairment, noting that current tests do not adequately measure impairment and that THC can be detected in a person’s system long after they are no longer affected by the drug." The committee also made a number of findings including that, "school-based drug education is more effective when it is based on a harm-minimisation approach and not abstinence-based messaging" and that "public health and drug education campaigns should avoid harmful stereotypes of users and reinforcing stigma".

On 22 August 2019, the Standing Committee on Agriculture and Water Resources, was instructed to inquire into and report on, the opportunities and impediments to the primary production sectors of Australia. In December 2020, the Committee made a number of recommendations including, that the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment "review the regulations applying to the growing and processing of industrial Hemp", the committee also recommend that the "review should include the scheduling of industrial Hemp products by the Therapeutic Goods Administration and consider how any barriers restricting producers from accessing the full value of the hemp plant including the food, fibre, and nutraceuticals can be overcome".^[66]

On 15 October 2019, Cate Faehrmann gave a Notice of Motion to introduce the Cannabis Industry Bill 2019 to legalise cannabis and cannabis products; to regulate the sale, supply and advertising of cannabis and cannabis products; and for other purposes in New South Wales.^[67]

On 14 November 2019, the Senate referred an inquiry titled the current barriers around patient access^[68] to the Senate Community Affairs Reference Committee, On 26 March 2020, the inquiry recommend that "the Department of Health, in collaboration with the Australian Medical Association, the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners and other specialist colleges and health professional bodies, develop targeted education and public awareness campaigns to reduce the stigma around medicinal cannabis within the community". The committee also made a number of other recommendations including amnesty for "possession and/or cultivation of cannabis for genuine self medication purposes".^[69]

On 6 May 2020, the Hemp Industry Act 2019 and associated Regulations commenced in the Northern Territory allowing for the commercial production of industrial hemp under license.^[70]

On 17 February 2021, Cate Faehrmann introduced the Cannabis Legalisation Bill 2021 to legalise cannabis and cannabis products; to regulate the sale, supply and advertising of cannabis and cannabis products; and for other purposes in New South Wales.^[71]

Consumption

Indigenous Australians

Historical and social factors have contributed to the widespread use of tobacco and alcohol among Indigenous communities and according to Perkins, Clough and others, the use of illicit drugs (cannabis in particular) is higher among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples than among the non-Indigenous population of Australia.^[83][84]

Little detailed information is available on cannabis use in urban or remote Indigenous communities. J. Copeland from the NCPIC and others^[85] cite 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey results showing that 27% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander respondents reported using cannabis in the last 12 months, compared with 13% of non-Indigenous Australians. However, these results are likely to under-report cannabis use in non-urban Aboriginal populations; communities are often small, isolated and highly mobile, making data collection problematic.^[80] What little detailed information is available on remote Indigenous communities comes mainly from targeted studies of several communities in the Top End of Australia's Northern Territory.^[86]

Studies that do provide information on cannabis use within the Indigenous population show pattern of problematic cannabis abuse that exceeds that seen in the mainstream non-Indigenous population. A survey conducted in the mid-1980s by Watson and others^[87] failed to detect any cannabis use in Top End Indigenous communities. However, by the late 1990s the Aboriginal Research Council provided information suggesting that cannabis was used by 31% of males and 8% of females in eastern Arnhem Land. A further study in 2002 found that cannabis was being used regularly by 67% of males and 22% of females aged 13 to 36.^[86] A survey about drug use conducted in 1997 of two NSW populations of Aboriginal Australians found that 38% had used Cannabis.^[88]

As part of the 2004 National Drug Strategy,^[79] a survey was conducted assessing drug use among Indigenous populations living in urban areas. Results showed that 48% had tried cannabis at least once, and 22% had used cannabis in the previous year. Regular cannabis use (at least weekly) was also more common among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island communities than non-Indigenous groups (11% and 4%, respectively).

The 2018–19 NDSHS asked Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 14 and over were whether they had used illicit substances in the last 12 months, 5.5% had used cannabis in the last 12 months—almost 1.3 times higher than non-Indigenous Australians (12.0%).^[89]

The data describing cannabis use in the Indigenous population compared with non-Indigenous use varies in the ratio of recent cannabis use to those respondents who have ever used cannabis. In the non-Indigenous population, rates of cannabis use in the last 12 months are a third of those ever using cannabis; however, researchers found only a few percentage-points' difference between rates of regular and lifetime use within the Indigenous population.^[86]

According to McLaren and Mattick,^[18] the reasons for high rates of cannabis use among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are complex and likely to be related to the social determinants of drug use. Risk factors associated with harmful substance use are often related to poor health and social well-being, stemming from the alienation and dispossession experienced by this population.^[90] Spooner and Hetherington confirm that many of the social determinants of harmful substance abuse are disproportionately present in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.^[91]

In June 2020, it was revealed that New South Wales Police had pursued criminal charges against more than 82% of Indigenous people caught with small amounts of cannabis, compared with only 52% of non-Indigenous people. In other words, Indigenous people were very likely to get criminally charged, while non-Indigenous people were more likely to receive only a warning. The data was obtained by The Guardian using freedom of information laws.^[92]

Synthetic cannabinoids

Before June 2011, synthetic cannabinoids were relatively unknown in Australia.^[93] However, compulsory employee drug tests at Western Australian mines found that 1 in 10 employees had consumed compounds found in synthetic cannabinoids.^[94] Their popular usage as opposed to naturally-grown cannabis was attributed to the fact that users could obtain a "legal high",^[95] as the compounds in synthetic cannabis were not yet listed as illegal on the Australian Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons [SUSMP] – the governing body of drug listing in Australia.^[96] Richard Kevin, a psychopharmacology Ph.D. candidate at the University of Sydney who is studying the effects of the synthetic compounds on mice stated one reason people use these products is to avoid drug testing.^[97]

Due to their popularity among recreational drug users, health professionals began researching the drug. As a result of a study by the Drug and Alcohol Review, it was found that 291 of 316 participants reported side effects in an online survey pertaining to the patterns of synthetic marijuana use. These side-effects included panic, vomiting, depression and psychosis and some felt the side effects were serious enough to consider seeking medical assistance.^[98]

An additional study conducted with the assistance of the UNSW, found that of 1100 self-reported synthetic drug users, 10% of individuals who had admitted to trying synthetic marijuana felt they were going to die, and 75% said they wouldn't try it again.^[99]

People who use large quantities of synthetic cannabis may become sedated or disoriented and may experience toxic psychosis – not knowing who they are, where they are, or what time it is. High doses may also cause fluctuating emotions, fragmentary thoughts, paranoia, panic attacks, hallucinations and feelings of unreality.

Australian states and territories

State		Possession	Cultivation	Medical	Notes
Australian Capital Territory		Legal up to 50 grams of dried cannabis or up to 150 grams of fresh cannabis	Legal for recreational use up to two cannabis plants at your home per person, with a maximum of four plants per household.	via federal law[102]	[60]
New South Wales		Illegal; diversion if first two offenses and <15 grams, max. $2,200 and 2 years for possession	Illegal; $11,000 and 2 years for non-trafficable quantities	via federal law[102]	[104] [105]
Northern Territory	D*	Illegal; max. $200 fine for ≤50 grams max. 2 years for >50 grams and/or possession in a public place	Illegal; $200 fine for two non-hydroponic plants max. life sentence for cultivation in front of a child	via federal law[102]	[106]
Queensland		Illegal; diversion if first offense and <50 grams max. 15 years otherwise	Illegal	via federal law[102]	[107]
South Australia		Illegal; max. $150 fine for ≤100 grams max. $2000 and 2 years for >100 grams	Illegal; max. $150 fine for one non-hydroponic plant	via federal law[102]	[108]
Tasmania		Illegal; diversion if first three offenses and <50 grams, max. $7950 and 2 years for >50 grams	Illegal	via federal law[102]	[104] [109] [110]
Victoria		Illegal; diversion if first or second offense and ≤50 grams, max. $2,200 and 2 years for possession max. $550,000 and 15–20 years for trafficking	Illegal	via federal law[102]	[104]
Western Australia		Illegal; diversion if first offense and ≤10 grams, max. $2,000 and 2 years for 10-100 grams max. $20,000 and 2 years for >100 grams	Illegal	via federal law[102]	[111] [112]

In the Australian Capital Territory, the Personal Cannabis Use Bill was passed on 25 September 2019, new laws came into effect on 31 January 2020, possession of small amounts of cannabis and one or two plants remains an offence under the act, however the Act creates exceptions for persons aged over the age of eighteen, allowing for possession of up to 50 grams of dry material, 150 grams of wet material, and cultivation of 2 plants per individual and up to 4 plants per household.^[60] Those under the age of 18 are not exempt people under the amendments and police officers hold ultimate direction to issue persons under the age of 18 a SCON (Simple Cannabis Offence Notice) or divert them to a drug and alcohol diversion program. If the SCON fine is paid within 60 days no conviction will be recorded, failure to pay the penalty order may result in proceedings before the court.^[61] Under the changes it is also prohibited to use cannabis in a public place,^[5] expose a child or young person to cannabis smoke, store cannabis where children can reach it, grow cannabis using hydroponics or artificial cultivation, grow plants where they can be accessed by the public, share or give cannabis as a gift to another person, or to drive with any cannabis in your system and for people aged under 18 to grow, possess, or use cannabis.^[62]

In South Australia Under the Expiation of Offences Act 1996, for persons over the age of 18 years, simple cannabis offences, that is, cultivating one cannabis plant without artificial enhancement, possession of up to 100 grams of cannabis, possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis resin, consuming cannabis (except in a public place) and possession of smoking implements can be expiated by a police officer, given in lieu of prosecution a fine, to be paid within 28 days and may relate to up to three offences arising from the same incident. If an expiation notice is not paid charges typically carry a $500–$1000 maximum fine and the possibility of a criminal conviction being recorded. Supply and low-level cultivation offences carry a maximum $2000 fine and/or 2 years imprisonment. Trafficking, sale, and/or cultivation or a commercial or ‘large commercial’ quantity carry a maximum penalty of up to $200,000 and 25 years imprisonment.^[108]

In Western Australia, as of August 2011: a person found in possession of ten grams or less of cannabis may receive a Cannabis Intervention Requirement notice to attend a mandatory one on one counselling session. Persons over 18 can only receive one CIR, while a young person (aged 14–17 years) can receive two. Subsequent minor cannabis-related offences will be prosecuted through the courts.^[111] Quantities larger than ten grams attract a penalty of up to A$2000 or two years in jail, or both. A person found in possession of more than 100g of cannabis would be deemed to have that quantity for supply and could face a penalty of A$20,000 or two years in jail.^[112] Opposing political sides have accused the government of changing the laws to appear tough on drugs in response to an increased public fear of clandestine drug labs following a number of them exploding in suburban areas, such as the Lilac Pass Incident.

In Queensland, under the Drugs Misuse Regulation Act 1987, possession of cannabis or any schedule 1 or 2 drug carries a maximum prison sentence of 15 years and is a criminal offence. Under the Police Powers and Responsibilities Act of 2000 a person who admits to carrying under 50 g (and is not committing any other offence) may be offered a drug diversion program if it is their first offence at the officers discretion. In Queensland, it is a criminal offence to give, distribute, sell, administer, transport or supply a dangerous drug. If drugs are located in a person's house, car, or other place of which they are the occupier, then they are 'deemed' to be in possession of the drug unless they can prove otherwise. Importation and trafficking of dangerous drugs are each offences that carry maximum penalties of life imprisonment.^[107]

In New South Wales under section 21 of the Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 possession of cannabis is a criminal offence and carries a maximum penalty of up to 2 years imprisonment, and/or a fine of up to $2,200. If an individual is caught with up to 15 g of cannabis, at police discretion they may be diverted to a drug and alcohol diversion program, up to two diversions can be issued. Under Section 333 of the NSW Criminal Procedure Act (1986) police have the discretion to issue a penalty notice of $400. NSW police also operate a cannabis cautioning scheme, if a person admits to being in possession of 15 grams or less of cannabis for personal use, who has had no previous convictions for violent, drug or sexual assault related offences and who is not also involved in another criminal offence at the time may be let off with a caution, at the officers discretion, an individual may only receive two cautions. Manufacturing or cultivating commercial quantities of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment and/or a $550,000 fine. Smaller, but indictable quantities carry a maximum penalty of 15–20 years and $220,000–$385,000. Manufacturing or cultivating less than the indictable quantity of cannabis has a maximum penalty of $11000 and/or 2 years imprisonment.^[104][105]

In Tasmania under the Misuse of Drugs Act 2001 possession of cannabis is a criminal offence, a court diversion program operates in the state, up to three cautions can be issued for possession of up to 50 g of cannabis, with a hierarchy of intervention and referrals for treatment with each caution.^[104] The maximum fine for possession of such an implement is 50 penalty units. The maximum penalty for possession is $7950 and/or 2 years imprisonment. Trafficking attracts a maximum term of imprisonment of 21 years. Trafficking of smaller quantities has a maximum term of 4 years imprisonment.^[110] An owner or occupier of a premises who knowingly causes, permits, or suffers those premises to be used for or in connection with certain cannabis related offences can also be found guilty of an offence in which case they are liable of a fine of up to 50 penalty units or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years, or both.^[109]

In Victoria possession and use of cannabis is a criminal offence^[104] and a diversion program in the state aims to divert offenders into education, assessment and treatment programs.^[104] In Victoria, up to 50 g of cannabis can attract a caution and the opportunity to attend an education program (Victoria Cannabis Cautioning Program); only two cautions can be issued.

Adults in the Northern Territory under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1990 persons found in possession of up to 50 g of cannabis, one gram of hash oil, 10 g of hash or cannabis seed/s, or two non-hydroponic plants can be fined A$200 with 28 days to expiate at an officers discretion or face a penalty of a fine of up to 50 penalty units or A$7.750 in court, in the NT, one penalty unit equates to A155.00. Possession in a public place faces a penalty of up to two years imprisonment. Cultivation in front of a child can face a penalty of life in prison. The maximum penalty for trafficking of a commercial quantity is up to 25 years imprisonment, for less than a commercial quantity is up to 2 years imprisonment.^[106]

Paraphernalia

All States and Territories criminalise the sale and supply of 'drug paraphernalia', although the legislation differs slightly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The possession of a 'drug paraphernalia' is an offence in all jurisdictions in Australia with the exemptions of Victoria and the ACT.^[113]

In NSW the maximum penalty for possession of "equipment for administration of drugs" is a fine of up to 20 penalty units or imprisonment for a term of two years.

In WA the maximum penalty for "possession of drug paraphernalia" is a $36,000 fine or imprisonment for a term of three years or both.

In the NT the maximum penalty for "possession of things for administering dangerous drugs" is a fine of up to 50 penalty units or imprisonment for a term of six months.

In QLD the maximum penalty for "possessing things for use in connection with the administration, consumption or smoking of a dangerous drug" carries penalties of up to two years imprisonment

In SA the maximum penalty for "possession of any piece of equipment for use in connection with the smoking, consumption or administration of a controlled drug" is a fine of up to $2000 or imprisonment for up to 2 years or both.

In TAS the maximum penalty for "possessing thing used for administration of controlled drug" is a fine of up to 50 penalty units.

Legislation and policy

On 17 October 2015, the Federal Government announced that it would legalise the commercial growing of cannabis for medicinal and scientific purposes.^[114] On 24 February 2016, the Australian parliament made amendments to the Narcotic Drugs Act that legalised the commercial growing of cannabis for medicinal and scientific purposes.^[115] The laws came into effect on 1 November 2016.^[116] On 17 February 2017, The Office of Drug Control in the Federal Department of Health issued the first Cannabis Research licence under the medicinal cannabis provisions of the Narcotic Drugs Act 1967.^[117]

Cannabis medicines must be registered with the Therapeutic Goods Administration, unless they are exempt from being entered into the ARTG, savitex is the only cannabis medicine currently registered on the ARTG. Therapeutic goods not approved may be accessed via the TGA via a special access scheme, such as the SAS, some jurisdictions also require relevant state or territory approvals, although doctors do not have to obtain approval to prescribe schedule four Cannabidiol(CBD) medicines. Doctors may also have to source a pharmacy to supply cannabis medicines to patients in Australia. Due to the current legislation patients must also effectively waive their right to drive or operate heavy machinery if the medicinal cannabis contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).^[118]

On 15 December 2020 the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) announced a final decision to down-schedule certain low dose cannabidiol (CBD) preparations from Schedule 4 (Prescription Medicine) to Schedule 3 (Pharmacist Only Medicine). The decision limits over-the-counter supply to only those products that are approved by the TGA and included on the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG). As of 15 December 2020, there are currently no TGA approved products on the ARTG that meet the Schedule 3 criteria.^[119] To be eligible, medications must be sold in packets with less than 4500 mg of CBD (150 mg/day) and must contain less than 2% of other cannabinoids.^[120]

Usage

According to the national drug strategy household survey 2019, of people who used cannabis in the previous 12 months, 6.8% said they used it only for medical purposes and 16.3% said they sometimes used it for medical purposes and sometimes for other reasons.^[121] This equates to 2.7% in the total Australian population (or about 600,000 people) using cannabis for medical purposes, either always or sometimes. Only less than 1% in the total Australia population reported the use of cannabis only for medicinal purposes.^[122]

• Older people, particularly those aged 60 and over, were most likely to use cannabis only for medicinal purposes, while people in their 20s were least likely to use it for medicinal purposes. Of people who used cannabis medically only, 43% were aged 50 and over. By comparison, among those who did not use cannabis for medical purposes (non-medically or illicitly), only 16% were aged 50 and over and 49% were aged 14–29.

Supply trends

According to the NDSHS 2019 When asked if their medical cannabis was prescribed by a doctor, only 3.9% of those who said they used cannabis for medical purposes obtained it by prescription—1.8% always had it prescribed and 2.1% had it sometimes prescribed. That is, among people who reported the use of cannabis for medicinal reasons, 95.9% did so without a doctor's prescription in 2019, three years after the approval of legal access to medical cannabis.^[122]

• People who used cannabis for medical purposes (either always or sometimes), usually obtained it from a friend (51%), but 22% purchased it from a dealer; 7.3% grew it themselves and 2.2% had a prescription for a medical condition.
• The National Special Access Scheme has since been streamlined and the number of patients accessing cannabis via the TGA has increased to over 65,000 with 13,000 approvals in September 2021.^[123]

Prevalence and price

Seizures and arrests

Political parties

Public support

Support for the legalisation of illicit drugs declined slightly between 2004 and 2007 and support for the legalisation for personal use of cannabis fell between 2004 and 2007, from 27.0% to 21.2%. Males were more likely than females to support legalisation (in 2007, 23.8% versus 18.5%).^[79]

Support has grown in recent years with more Australians now supporting legalisation of cannabis than those who remain opposed, according to the 2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 41% of Australians now support the legalisation of cannabis 37% remain opposed and 22% remain undecided. There have also been some associated changes in public perceptions about other cannabis-related policies. For example, the majority of Australians aged 14 years and over do not support the possession of cannabis being a criminal offence (74% in 2016 compared with 66% in 2010).^[6]

Who Are We Hurting? 420 stunts

• On 20 April 2022, activists from "Who Are We Hurting?" including Alec 'Craze' Zammitt, Will Stolk & Jenny Hallam project dancing cannabis leaves on Australian landmarks of the Sydney Opera House & Sydney Harbour Bridge.^{[154][155][156][157][158][159]}
• On 20 April 2021, activists from Who Are We Hurting? including the Craze Collective, Ballin' On a Budget, Avert Smellproof Bags & 710@420 teamed up with Jenny Hallam, a South Australian cannabis oil advocate that was spared conviction in 2019 for producing and supplying medicinal cannabis to terminally ill people presented $420,000 as part of a performance art piece to Parliament House in Canberra. The group said the stunt was a visual representation of a percentage of the current funds spent on enforcing prohibition and a percentage of the possible excise revenue from a legal cannabis market in Australia. The Who Are We Hurting team stated "Recent data revealed by the Australian Greens indicate billions of dollars of potential tax revenue from cannabis is being lost annually, money that could be spent on roads, hospitals and schools".^[160][161]
• On 1 April 2020, (April Fool's Day) activists from 'Who Are We Hurting?' delivered Prime Minister Scott Morrison a pound of artificial cannabis and the following letter.

Dear Scotty,

We know you’ve been working bloody hard at the moment, so we wanted to give you something to help relax a little.

Please fix the cannabis crisis and replace organised crime with legitimate employment.

We are calling for a federal amnesty on cannabis, following suit with Australia's Capital Territory and other western countries like Canada. In this time of crisis, vulnerable people are being forced to travel unnecessarily in order to purchase medications from the black market as medical cannabis is unaffordable to most, especially during the current employment climate and the quarantine of millions of Australians due to COVID-19.

We hope and pray this care package finds you well.

With love from

The Who Are We Hurting Team.^{[162][163][164]}

• On 20 April 2019, activists moved in a 9 metre tall cannabis sculpture at Sydney's iconic Martin Place to ignite discussion around the legality of cannabis. The sculpture was titled Who are we really hurting and was removed by police later that day.^{[165][166][167][168]}
• On 20 April 2018, activists teamed up with the hemp health and innovation expo Hhi expo and placed cannabis plants over Sydney CBD, the stunt made national headlines with the organizers being interviewed on network tens breakfast tv show Studio 10.^{[169][170][171]}
• On 20 April 2017, activists set up a Hydroponic grow room in a store window in the heart of Sydney. Police attended the premises to investigate and found that the plants were artificial and the instillation was allowed to stay.^[172][173]
• On 20 April 2016, activists from 'Who Are We Hurting?' with Australian rapper Hyjak from Hyjak N Torcha raised a giant sign off the highway using 1m diameter wedding party balloons full of helium in Sydney. Hyjak - Mother Natures Gift MUSIC VIDEO - #Superbong does 420 #Whoarewehurting?

Nimbin Hemp Embassy, Mardi Grass & The HEMP Party

Nimbin is a small town within the Northern Rivers Region of NSW, arguably the cannabis counter-culture capital of Australia. In 1973, tribes of hippies attended the Aquarius Festival in the Northern NSW town of Nimbin. The prevalence of a drug culture in Nimbin since 1973 has been accompanied by a prevalence of collective and public creativity: colourful and spiritually motivated art (including large paintings above shop awnings), music, poetry, craft, and fashion can all be seen on the main street. The town is known as a hotspot for alternative social activities, grassroots political discourse, and the espousal of naturalist, humanist, anarchist, feminist, permissive, new-age, mystical, and radical social philosophies (which can all be seen as collective creative endeavours).^[174]

The Nimbin Hemp Embassy is a non-profit association that was established in 1992. The embassy's objectives are cannabis law reform via an education program for the community about hemp products and cannabis and "promoting a more tolerant and compassionate attitude to people in general".^[84] According to the HEMP Embassy website, "the Nearly NORML Nimbin group formed in 1988 as the district's first enduring drug law reform outfit and later became Nimbin HEMP – Help End Marijuana Prohibition – then later in 1992 the name changed to the Nimbin HEMP Embassy. Generally the group discussed the cannabis laws of NSW and how they might be changed".

In March 1993, after a decade of raids and arrests, and a particularly intensive recent period of random (and illegal) street searches, arrests, rough treatment, pre-dawn raids, regular intimidation and that crushing sense of a province facing conquest, undercover police officers had been discovered buying cannabis in the area. This enraged a small portion of the townsfolk from Nimbin to such an extent that they chased the police officers back to the police station and tossed eggs and toilet paper. Concerned about bad publicity members from the Nimbin HEMP Embassy decided to come up with a more peaceful form of protest that ordinary people could comfortably join. That is when  Bob Hopkins (a.k.a. The Plantem) came up with the idea of MardiGrass. Saturday 1 May 1993 was designated and so the Mardi Grass was born. Despite a lack of police participation and the stern opposition of the local council who refused the marchers the right to march and use of the local park, over 1,000 people, mainly locals, came out in defiance and took part in a powerful ritual of personal and community empowerment. They paraded from the local Bush Theatre uptown to the village centre, then on to the police station where they danced and wished the police well. To a tumultuous percussion beat they returned to the Hall for their rally. The contact high was tangible for days afterwards and they vowed to hold  Mardi Grass every year until prohibition's end and is still held to this day.^[175]

The next year, 1994, the May Day "Let It Grow!" Mardi Grass and Drug Law Reform Rally was held on Sunday 1 May accompanied on the Saturday by a National Conference called "Beyond Prohibition". This boasted an impressive array of politicians, academics and sundry experts in their chosen fields. The Parade/Rally, along with the annual Harvest Festival Ball and Pot Art Exhibition, became a two day Fiesta.^[175] Following in the footsteps of the Cannabis Cup in the Netherlands, the Cannabis Cup in Australia is a competition run by MardiGrass to judge strains of cannabis. Growers submit samples of their crop for judging and the Hemp Olympics, held at MardiGrass, includes events such as bong throwing, joint rolling and "a growers' Ironperson competition, which requires participants to crawl through lantana tunnels dragging large bags of fertilizer".^[176]

Nimbin and the Nimbin HEMP Embassy are also home to the HEMP (Help End Marijuana Prohibition) Party, The group was founded in 1993 by Nigel Quinlan, who ran as a candidate under the name Nigel Freemarijuana. In 2001, Freemarijuana's name was assessed by the Australian Electoral Commission as to whether it was suitable to be added to the electoral roll – the Commission found that it was, meaning Freemarijuana could run as an electoral candidate under the name. They have a number of objectives including to legalise Cannabis in all states and territories in Australia for personal use, medical and therapeutic and industrial purposes.^[177]

OZ Stoners and Australia's Cannabis Culture

Established in 1999, OZ Stoners emerged as a significant platform within Australia's evolving cannabis culture. Positioned not solely as a community forum, it has contributed to the broader discourse on cannabis in the country, documenting experiences, academic insights, and debates. ^[178]

Slang

Some of the street names of Cannabis in Australia are Mary Jane, bud, dope, smoko, green, sesh, chop, choof, spliff, honk, ganja, yarndi, mull, hydro, green action, heads, hooch, weed, joints, cones, laughing lucerne, chronic and 420.^[181]

Other commonly used terms in Australian cannabis culture are:^[182]

• Bewg/Beug

Term to describe a bong/water pipe used to smoke cannabis.

• Cone/cones

Term used to describe standardised single dose's of cannabis from a bong. Also used to describe Cone Piece (see below)

• Cone piece/CP

Small brass attachment commonly used to dose Cannabis to be smoked in a bong.

• Gator/Gatorbewg

Common homemade bong, usually fashioned from a used Gatorade bottle. A stem is made with a small length of garden hose and a small hole (carb/shotty) is added to the back to help control airflow.

• Sesh/Esh

Short for "session". Generally used in the context of sharing in a cannabis smoking experience with friends or acquaintances.

• Mission / Misho / Mish

A term describing the process and/or journey required to follow in order to obtain Cannabis.

• Chop

Term for chopped or grinded cannabis

• PGR (aka reds, hairy, dirt, bikie buds, brisbane red & canberra gold)

PGR stands for Plant Growth Regulator. Plant growth regulators are often used by outlaw motorcycle gangs and other organised crime syndicates. Cannabis is grown with Plant growth regulators to increase harvestable weight, at the expense of quality. Cannabis grown with PGR's lack the terpene, flavonoid and cannabinoid profiles usually found in Cannabis. Plants grown with PGRs can lead to adverse health effects. The most commonly used PGR in Australia is thought to be Paclobutrazol, though others are used too.

• Tick

Term used to describe an arrangement where the customer will purchase cannabis on credit, usually to be repaid on one's pay day, or when cannabis is sold for commercial applications.

Online trends

Australians have transitioned into utilizing the online space when it comes to accessing and purchasing their favorite cannabis accessories. Online trends differ from city to city, and per capita, in 2016 Brisbane, Adelaide and Launceston were searching online the most; followed by Toowoomba, Melbourne, Sydney and Gold Coast. As far as the cannabis accessories searched for the most online, in 2016 Australians were particularly keen on shopping for bongs as they made up 72% of searches, while vaporizers made up 15%. These higher quality methods of ingesting marijuana smoke or vapors were followed by pipes at 10% and rolling papers at just 3%.^[183]

Interest has grown in the last decade for cannabis related news, data sourced using AHREF in 2020 showed that cannabis related news and articles per year grew 18,850% since 2010.^[184]

In 2020 the Therapeutic Goods Administration approved Australia's first medical-cannabis app. Patients will be able to use the app to order and pay for pre-approved prescriptions. Patients requesting medical cannabis prescriptions will not be eligible for the platform before being granted access to the Special Access Scheme by the TGA. The app will also allow approved providers to prescribe medical cannabis products to regular patients – without the need for multiple in-person visits.^[185]

Cannabis expos

There is a number of cannabis related expos and expos showcasing cannabis related products in Australia, they mainly hope to give their guests information and greater awareness around the crucial benefits the hemp and cannabis plant has already unlocked, and its sustainable solutions for the future. They have a number of experiential and educational interactive activities for all ages alongside local and international exhibitors. Through workshops, displays, speakers and exhibitors showcasing everything from hemp fibres, foods, beverages, clothing and textiles, medicinal products, extraction equipment, building materials, beauty products, gardening, hydroponic equipment and much more.

Annual 420 rallies

20 April has become an international counterculture holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis. Many such events have a political nature to them, advocating the liberalisation / legalisation of cannabis. Vivian McPeak, a founder of Seattle's Hempfest states that 4/20 is "half celebration and half call to action". Paul Birch calls it a global movement and suggests that one cannot stop events like these. In Australia the annual 420 in the park rallies held in major cities across the country aim to be a celebration of culture, creativity, compassion and the wonderful diversity of good-people who for various reasons, choose to consume cannabis. The rallies give the cannabis community an opportunity to demonstrate very clearly to the general public and to Australia at large, that there is nothing to be afraid of, and to stand united in calling on the Government to legalise adult cannabis use, and ensure that dismantling cannabis prohibition is on the agenda.^[186]