IGFBP3
Identifiers
AliasesIGFBP3, BP-53, IBP3, insulin like growth factor binding protein 3
External IDsOMIM: 146732 MGI: 96438 HomoloGene: 500 GeneCards: IGFBP3
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

3486

16009

Ensembl

ENSG00000146674

ENSMUSG00000020427

UniProt

P17936

P47878

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_001013398
NM_000598

NM_008343

RefSeq (protein)

NP_000589
NP_001013416

NP_032369

Location (UCSC)Chr 7: 45.91 – 45.92 MbChr 11: 7.16 – 7.16 Mb
PubMed search[3][4]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse

Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3, also known as IGFBP-3, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IGFBP3 gene. IGFBP-3 is one of six IGF binding proteins (IGFBP-1 to IGFBP-6) that have highly conserved structures and bind the insulin-like growth factors IGF-1 and IGF-2 with high affinity. IGFBP-7, sometimes included in this family, shares neither the conserved structural features nor the high IGF affinity. Instead, IGFBP-7 binds IGF1R, which blocks IGF-1 and IGF-2 binding, resulting in apoptosis.[5]

Function

IGFBP-3 was first isolated, characterized, and quantitated in human plasma, in 1986.[6][7] It has well-documented functions in the circulation, in the extracellular environment, and inside cells. It is the main IGF transport protein in the bloodstream, where it carries the growth factors predominantly in stable complexes that contain the binding protein, either IGF-1 or IGF-2, and a third protein called the acid-labile subunit or ALS.

For IGFs to reach the tissues from the bloodstream, the circulating complexes are believed to partly dissociate, possibly enhanced by limited proteolysis of IGFBP-3. The IGF-1/IGFBP-3 ratio has sometimes been used as an index of IGF bioavailability in the human circulation, but this ignores IGF-1 binding to other IGFBPs (so the ratio is affected by the concentrations of all six IGFBPs), and the fact that IGF-2, which is three times more abundant than IGF-1 in the bloodstream of adults, occupies the majority of binding sites on circulating IGFBP-3.

Within tissues, IGFBP-3 can bind IGF-1 and IGF-2 released by many cell types, and block their access to the IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R), which is activated by both IGFs. IGFBP-3 also interacts with cell-surface proteins, affecting cell signaling from outside the cell or after internalization, and also enters the cell nucleus where it binds to nuclear hormone receptors and other ligands. High levels of IGFBP-3 within tumors are associated with increased cancer severity (or worse outcome) for some cancers, but decreased severity or better outcome for others. No cases of IGFBP3 gene deletion in humans have been reported, but mice lacking the gene show near-normal growth.

Gene and protein structure

The IGFBP3 gene (or IBP3), on human chromosome 7, is organized into four protein-coding exons with a 5th exon in the 3' untranslated region.[8] It is located adjacent to the IGFBP1 gene in tail-to-tail orientation, separated by 20 kb.[9] The encoded protein includes a 27-residue signal peptide followed by the 264-residue mature protein. IGFBP-3 shares with the other five high-affinity IGFBPs and a 3-domain structure:[10]

  1. A conserved N-terminal domain containing a cysteine rich region (12 cysteine residues) with multiple intra-domain disulfide bonds, an IGFBP motif (GCGCCXXC), the primary site of IGF binding.
  2. A highly variable central or linker domain (only 15% conservation between IGFBPs).
  3. A conserved C-terminal domain containing secondary IGF binding residues, a cysteine rich region (6 cysteine residues), an 18 residue basic motif that binds heparin, the acid labile subunit (ALS), and a nuclear localization sequence.

The linker domain is the site of most post-translational modification, which include glycosylation, phosphorylation, and limited proteolysis. By electrophoretic analysis IGFBP-3 appears as a doublet, owing to the occupancy of either two or three of its N-glycosylation sites by carbohydrate. Hypoglycosylated IGFBP-3 may be seen after extended glucose starvation.

Many proteases are known to cleave IGFBP-3 at single linker-domain sites, and in the circulation of pregnant women, IGFBP-3 is entirely proteolyzed, yet still capable of carrying normal amounts of IGF-1 and IGF-2. Binding capacity appears to be retained after proteolysis because of a cooperative interaction between the two proteolyzed fragments, that together maintain an active IGF-binding site.[11]

Sites and regulation of production

IGFBP-3 mRNA is expressed in all tissue examined, with kidney, stomach, placenta, uterus and liver showing highest expression in rat tissues.[12] Rat liver IGFBP-3 mRNA is found in nonparenchymal cells including sinusoidal endothelium, but not in hepatocytes.[13] In contrast, human hepatocytes do express IGFBP-3.[14]

IGFBP-3 levels in human serum are, like IGF-1, dependent on growth hormone (GH); for example, serum IGFBP-3 is increased in acromegaly and low in GH-deficient children. However, IGFBP-3 gene expression in human liver is GH-independent.[7][15] Because it is stabilized in human serum by forming complexes with IGF-1 and ALS, which are both GH-dependent, serum IGFBP-3 also appears regulated by GH. Its production by some non-hepatic tissues may also be directly GH-regulated. Immunoassays for serum IGFBP-3 are often used as part of the diagnosis of childhood GH-deficiency.

The most widely studied IGFBP3 polymorphism, at nucleotide-202 in the promoter region, is significantly associated with circulating IGFBP-3 levels, although the mechanism is unclear.[16] In some studies circulating IGFBP-3 also appears to be nutritionally regulated, although this may not be seen at the mRNA level. IGFBP-3 has been identified in human lymph, nipple aspirate, milk, amniotic fluid, follicular fluid, seminal plasma, urine, peritoneal dialysate, synovial fluid, tear fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid, in addition to serum.

Many factors increase IGFBP-3 production by cells, including transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ), tumor necrosis factor-α, vitamin D, retinoic acid, IGF-1, and stimuli such as chemotherapy that activate the tumor suppressor p53.[17] Estrogen inhibits IGFBP-3 production, and its tissue levels are lower in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancers than in ER-negative cancers.

Interactions

The main IGFBP-3 ligands in the circulation are IGF-1 and IGF-2, and the acid-labile subunit (ALS).[18] The serum proteins transferrin,[19] fibronectin,[20] and plasminogen[21] are also known to bind IGFBP-3. In the cell and tissue environment many other interactions have been described (see Table). Two unrelated cell-surface proteins have been designated as IGFBP-3 receptors: low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), also known as alpha-2-macroglobulin receptor or type V TGFβ receptor[22] and the transmembrane protein TMEM219.[23] Both are believed to mediate antiproliferative effects. Functional interactions with the EGF receptor and the type I/type II TGFβ receptor system have also been reported, and other cell-surface proteins such as proteoglycans also bind IGFBP-3. IGFBP-3 can enter cells by both clathrin-mediated and caveolin-mediated endocytosis.[24] possibly involving the transferrin receptor.[25]

IGFBP-3 enters the cell nucleus by a mechanism that is incompletely understood, but involves its binding to importin-β.[26] Within the nucleus, it can modulate nuclear hormone receptor activity by direct binding to retinoid X receptor, retinoic acid receptor,[27] vitamin D receptor,[28] PPARγ,[29] and nur77,[30] IGFBP-3 also interacts with DNA-dependent protein kinase within the nucleus to promote the repair of DNA damage.[31]

Cellular actions

IGFBP-3 exerts antiproliferative effects in many cell types by blocking the ability of IGF-1 and IGF-2 to activate the IGF1R (which stimulates cell proliferation). For example, in esophageal epithelial cells, responsiveness to IGF-1 stimulation is suppressed by secreted IGFBP-3 and restored when IGFBP-3 is downregulated by epidermal growth factor.[32] IGFBP-3 can also inhibit cell function by mechanisms that are independent of effects on IGF1R signaling, even in cells that entirely lack IGF1R.[33] IGF (or IGF1R) independent effects are commonly studied using mutant forms of IGFBP-3 with decreased IGF binding affinity. Thus, IGFBP-3-induced apoptosis in differentiating chondrocyte precursor cells is seen equally with a non-IGF binding IGFBP-3 mutant, demonstrating that the mechanism does not involve IGF binding.[34] IGF1R-independent growth inhibition by IGFBP-3 may involve the induction of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax and Bad[35] and may be mediated by ceramides (pro-apoptotic lipids),[36] or potentiate ceramide action[37] IGFBP-3 interaction with nuclear hormone receptors may also lead to inhibition of cell proliferation.

Contrasting with the typical growth-inhibitory effects of IGFBP-3, stimulation of cell proliferation by IGFBP-3 has also been observed. This can occur either by enhancing IGF-stimulated proliferation[38] or in the absence of IGF-1. In endothelial cells and mammary epithelial cells, the stimulatory effect of IGFBP-3 has been shown to involve activation of the enzyme sphingosine kinase, and generation of the bioactive lipid, sphingosine-1-phosphate, which promotes growth by transactivating the EGFR receptor.[36][39]

Role in cancer

Based on cell growth experiments, animal cancer models, and epidemiological studies, it appears that IGFBP-3 functions as a low-penetrance tumor suppressor gene.[10]

Dysregulation of IGFBP-3 has been implicated in many cancers.[40] Downregulation of its tissue expression by promoter hypermethylation in some cancers, such as hepatoma[41] and non-small cell lung cancer[42] may be associated with poor patient outcome. However, consistent with the dual inhibitory and stimulatory roles of IGFBP-3 seen in cell culture, there are other cancer types, such as breast cancer,[43][44] pancreatic cancer,[45] and clear cell renal cell cancer[46] in which high tissue IGFBP-3 expression has been linked to poor prognostic features or patient outcome. The mechanisms regulating these contrasting effects of IGFBP-3 in vivo are not well understood.

Since IGFBP-3 is abundant in the bloodstream of healthy adults (typically 2–4 mg/L), and is largely stabilized by its complex formation with IGFs and ALS, it is unlikely that tumor-derived IGFBP-3 has a large influence on circulating levels. There have been many studies linking circulating IGFBP-3 levels to the presence, or risk, of various cancers, or to patient outcomes.[40] but unequivocal conclusions have often been lacking. For example, high plasma IGFBP-3 levels were associated with a reduced prospective risk of colorectal cancer in women.[47] but in a study including men and women, colon cancer risk was positively associated with plasma IGFBP-3, while there was no significant association for rectal cancer.[48] A large systematic review concluded that circulating IGFBP-3 levels showed a modest association with increased risk for a number of cancers, but the results vary among sites.[49]

IGFBP-3 protein levels decrease during the progression of prostate cancer from benign to metastatic disease[50] although production of the protein does not cease completely. IGFBP-3 is still made (at a lower level) by prostate cancer cells and secreted into the surrounding environment. However, instead of the full length, functional protein, IGFBP-3 is found to be cleaved.[51] This decreases the affinity of IGF binding to IGFBP-3, making the growth factors more likely to bind the IGF1R and promote cell survival.

Table: IGFBP-3 binding partners

IGFBP3 has been shown to interact with:

See also

Notes

References

  1. 1 2 3 GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000146674 - Ensembl, May 2017
  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000020427 - Ensembl, May 2017
  3. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ Evdokimova V, Tognon CE, Benatar T, Yang W, Krutikov K, Pollak M, et al. (December 2012). "IGFBP7 binds to the IGF-1 receptor and blocks its activation by insulin-like growth factors". Science Signaling. 5 (255): ra92. doi:10.1126/scisignal.2003184. PMID 23250396. S2CID 24794913.
  6. 1 2 3 Martin JL, Baxter RC (July 1986). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein from human plasma. Purification and characterization". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 261 (19): 8754–8760. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)84446-0. PMID 3722172.
  7. 1 2 Baxter RC, Martin JL (December 1986). "Radioimmunoassay of growth hormone-dependent insulinlike growth factor binding protein in human plasma". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 78 (6): 1504–1512. doi:10.1172/jci112742. PMC 423906. PMID 2431001.
  8. ↑ Cubbage ML, Suwanichkul A, Powell DR (July 1990). "Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3. Organization of the human chromosomal gene and demonstration of promoter activity". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 265 (21): 12642–12649. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)38392-9. PMID 1695633.
  9. ↑ Ehrenborg E, Larsson C, Stern I, Janson M, Powell DR, Luthman H (March 1992). "Contiguous localization of the genes encoding human insulin-like growth factor binding proteins 1 (IGBP1) and 3 (IGBP3) on chromosome 7". Genomics. 12 (3): 497–502. doi:10.1016/0888-7543(92)90440-4. PMID 1373120.
  10. 1 2 Jogie-Brahim S, Feldman D, Oh Y (August 2009). "Unraveling insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 actions in human disease". Endocrine Reviews. 30 (5): 417–437. doi:10.1210/er.2008-0028. PMC 2819737. PMID 19477944.
  11. ↑ Yan X, Payet LD, Baxter RC, Firth SM (November 2009). "Activity of human pregnancy insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3: determination by reconstituting recombinant complexes". Endocrinology. 150 (11): 4968–4976. doi:10.1210/en.2009-0090. PMID 19734278.
  12. ↑ Albiston AL, Herington AC (January 1992). "Tissue distribution and regulation of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in the rat: comparison with IGF-I mRNA expression". Endocrinology. 130 (1): 497–502. doi:10.1210/endo.130.1.1370153. PMID 1370153.
  13. ↑ Chin E, Zhou J, Dai J, Baxter RC, Bondy CA (June 1994). "Cellular localization and regulation of gene expression for components of the insulin-like growth factor ternary binding protein complex". Endocrinology. 134 (6): 2498–2504. doi:10.1210/endo.134.6.7515002. PMID 7515002.
  14. ↑ Scharf JG, Schmidt-Sandte W, Pahernik SA, Koebe HG, Hartmann H (October 1995). "Synthesis of insulin-like growth factor binding proteins and of the acid-labile subunit of the insulin-like growth factor ternary binding protein complex in primary cultures of human hepatocytes". Journal of Hepatology. 23 (4): 424–430. doi:10.1016/0168-8278(95)80201-0. PMID 8655960.
  15. ↑ Olivecrona H, Hilding A, Ekström C, Barle H, Nyberg B, Möller C, et al. (February 1999). "Acute and short-term effects of growth hormone on insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins: serum levels and hepatic messenger ribonucleic acid responses in humans". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 84 (2): 553–560. doi:10.1210/JCEM.84.2.5466. PMID 10022415.
  16. ↑ Deal C, Ma J, Wilkin F, Paquette J, Rozen F, Ge B, et al. (March 2001). "Novel promoter polymorphism in insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3: correlation with serum levels and interaction with known regulators". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86 (3): 1274–1280. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.3.7280. PMID 11238520.
  17. ↑ Buckbinder L, Talbott R, Velasco-Miguel S, Takenaka I, Faha B, Seizinger BR, Kley N (October 1995). "Induction of the growth inhibitor IGF-binding protein 3 by p53". Nature. 377 (6550): 646–649. Bibcode:1995Natur.377..646B. doi:10.1038/377646a0. PMID 7566179. S2CID 4317117.
  18. 1 2 Baxter RC, Martin JL, Beniac VA (July 1989). "High molecular weight insulin-like growth factor binding protein complex. Purification and properties of the acid-labile subunit from human serum". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 264 (20): 11843–11848. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)80143-0. PMID 2473065.
  19. 1 2 Weinzimer SA, Gibson TB, Collett-Solberg PF, Khare A, Liu B, Cohen P (April 2001). "Transferrin is an insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 binding protein". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86 (4): 1806–1813. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.4.7380. PMID 11297622.
  20. 1 2 Gui Y, Murphy LJ (May 2001). "Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) binds to fibronectin (FN): demonstration of IGF-I/IGFBP-3/fn ternary complexes in human plasma". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86 (5): 2104–2110. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.5.7472. PMID 11344214.
  21. 1 2 Campbell PG, Durham SK, Suwanichkul A, Hayes JD, Powell DR (August 1998). "Plasminogen binds the heparin-binding domain of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3". The American Journal of Physiology. 275 (2): E321–E331. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.1998.275.2.E321. PMID 9688635.
  22. ↑ Huang SS, Ling TY, Tseng WF, Huang YH, Tang FM, Leal SM, Huang JS (November 2003). "Cellular growth inhibition by IGFBP-3 and TGF-beta1 requires LRP-1". FASEB Journal. 17 (14): 2068–2081. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0256com. PMID 14597676. S2CID 84528390.
  23. ↑ Ingermann AR, Yang YF, Han J, Mikami A, Garza AE, Mohanraj L, et al. (September 2010). "Identification of a novel cell death receptor mediating IGFBP-3-induced anti-tumor effects in breast and prostate cancer". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 285 (39): 30233–30246. doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.122226. PMC 2943278. PMID 20353938.
  24. ↑ Micutkova L, Hermann M, Offterdinger M, Hess MW, Matscheski A, Pircher H, et al. (April 2012). "Analysis of the cellular uptake and nuclear delivery of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 in human osteosarcoma cells". International Journal of Cancer. 130 (7): 1544–1557. doi:10.1002/ijc.26149. PMID 21520041. S2CID 18570671.
  25. ↑ Lee KW, Liu B, Ma L, Li H, Bang P, Koeffler HP, Cohen P (January 2004). "Cellular internalization of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3: distinct endocytic pathways facilitate re-uptake and nuclear localization". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (1): 469–476. doi:10.1074/jbc.m307316200. PMID 14576164.
  26. 1 2 Schedlich LJ, Le Page SL, Firth SM, Briggs LJ, Jans DA, Baxter RC (August 2000). "Nuclear import of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 and -5 is mediated by the importin beta subunit". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (31): 23462–23470. doi:10.1074/jbc.m002208200. PMID 10811646.
  27. 1 2 Liu B, Lee HY, Weinzimer SA, Powell DR, Clifford JL, Kurie JM, Cohen P (October 2000). "Direct functional interactions between insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 and retinoid X receptor-alpha regulate transcriptional signaling and apoptosis". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (43): 33607–33613. doi:10.1074/jbc.m002547200. PMID 10874028.
  28. ↑ Ikezoe T, Tanosaki S, Krug U, Liu B, Cohen P, Taguchi H, Koeffler HP (July 2004). "Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 antagonizes the effects of retinoids in myeloid leukemia cells". Blood. 104 (1): 237–242. doi:10.1182/blood-2003-07-2203. PMID 15026318.
  29. ↑ Chan SS, Schedlich LJ, Twigg SM, Baxter RC (April 2009). "Inhibition of adipocyte differentiation by insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (4): E654–E663. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90846.2008. PMID 19141684.
  30. ↑ Lee KW, Cobb LJ, Paharkova-Vatchkova V, Liu B, Milbrandt J, Cohen P (August 2007). "Contribution of the orphan nuclear receptor Nur77 to the apoptotic action of IGFBP-3". Carcinogenesis. 28 (8): 1653–1658. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgm088. PMID 17434920.
  31. 1 2 3 Lin MZ, Marzec KA, Martin JL, Baxter RC (January 2014). "The role of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 in the breast cancer cell response to DNA-damaging agents". Oncogene. 33 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1038/onc.2012.538. PMID 23178489.
  32. ↑ Takaoka M, Smith CE, Mashiba MK, Okawa T, Andl CD, El-Deiry WS, Nakagawa H (February 2006). "EGF-mediated regulation of IGFBP-3 determines esophageal epithelial cellular response to IGF-I". American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 290 (2): G404–G416. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00344.2005. PMC 2996094. PMID 16210470.
  33. ↑ Valentinis B, Bhala A, DeAngelis T, Baserga R, Cohen P (March 1995). "The human insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein-3 inhibits the growth of fibroblasts with a targeted disruption of the IGF-I receptor gene". Molecular Endocrinology. 9 (3): 361–367. doi:10.1210/mend.9.3.7539889. PMID 7539889.
  34. ↑ Longobardi L, Torello M, Buckway C, O'Rear L, Horton WA, Hwa V, et al. (May 2003). "A novel insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-independent role for IGF binding protein-3 in mesenchymal chondroprogenitor cell apoptosis". Endocrinology. 144 (5): 1695–1702. doi:10.1210/en.2002-220959. PMID 12697673.
  35. ↑ Butt AJ, Firth SM, King MA, Baxter RC (December 2000). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 modulates expression of Bax and Bcl-2 and potentiates p53-independent radiation-induced apoptosis in human breast cancer cells". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (50): 39174–39181. doi:10.1074/jbc.m908888199. PMID 10998426.
  36. 1 2 Granata R, Trovato L, Garbarino G, Taliano M, Ponti R, Sala G, et al. (September 2004). "Dual effects of IGFBP-3 on endothelial cell apoptosis and survival: involvement of the sphingolipid signaling pathways". FASEB Journal. 18 (12): 1456–1458. doi:10.1096/fj.04-1618fje. PMID 15247143. S2CID 13892154.
  37. ↑ Gill ZP, Perks CM, Newcomb PV, Holly JM (October 1997). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (IGFBP-3) predisposes breast cancer cells to programmed cell death in a non-IGF-dependent manner". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 272 (41): 25602–25607. doi:10.1074/jbc.272.41.25602. PMID 9325280.
  38. ↑ Conover CA, Clarkson JT, Bale LK (June 1996). "Factors regulating insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 binding, processing, and potentiation of insulin-like growth factor action". Endocrinology. 137 (6): 2286–2292. doi:10.1210/endo.137.6.8641177. PMID 8641177.
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  40. 1 2 Baxter RC (May 2014). "IGF binding proteins in cancer: mechanistic and clinical insights". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 14 (5): 329–341. doi:10.1038/nrc3720. PMID 24722429. S2CID 11169818.
  41. ↑ Hanafusa T, Yumoto Y, Nouso K, Nakatsukasa H, Onishi T, Fujikawa T, et al. (February 2002). "Reduced expression of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and its promoter hypermethylation in human hepatocellular carcinoma". Cancer Letters. 176 (2): 149–158. doi:10.1016/s0304-3835(01)00736-4. PMID 11804742.
  42. ↑ Chang YS, Wang L, Liu D, Mao L, Hong WK, Khuri FR, Lee HY (December 2002). "Correlation between insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 promoter methylation and prognosis of patients with stage I non-small cell lung cancer". Clinical Cancer Research. 8 (12): 3669–3675. PMID 12473575.
  43. ↑ Yu H, Levesque MA, Khosravi MJ, Papanastasiou-Diamandi A, Clark GM, Diamandis EP (December 1998). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 and breast cancer survival". International Journal of Cancer. 79 (6): 624–628. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19981218)79:6<624::aid-ijc12>3.0.co;2-9. PMID 9842972. S2CID 5683010.
  44. ↑ Sheen-Chen SM, Zhang H, Huang CC, Tang RP (April 2009). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 in breast cancer: analysis with tissue microarray". Anticancer Research. 29 (4): 1131–1135. PMID 19414355.
  45. ↑ Xue A, Scarlett CJ, Jackson CJ, Allen BJ, Smith RC (March 2008). "Prognostic significance of growth factors and the urokinase-type plasminogen activator system in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma". Pancreas. 36 (2): 160–167. doi:10.1097/mpa.0b013e31815750f0. PMID 18376307. S2CID 27663623.
  46. ↑ Takahashi M, Papavero V, Yuhas J, Kort E, Kanayama HO, Kagawa S, et al. (April 2005). "Altered expression of members of the IGF-axis in clear cell renal cell carcinoma". International Journal of Oncology. 26 (4): 923–931. doi:10.3892/ijo.26.4.923. PMID 15753986.
  47. ↑ Giovannucci E, Pollak MN, Platz EA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Majeed N, et al. (April 2000). "A prospective study of plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 and binding protein-3 and risk of colorectal neoplasia in women". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 9 (4): 345–349. PMID 10794477.
  48. ↑ Palmqvist R, Hallmans G, Rinaldi S, Biessy C, Stenling R, Riboli E, Kaaks R (May 2002). "Plasma insulin-like growth factor 1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3, and risk of colorectal cancer: a prospective study in northern Sweden". Gut. 50 (5): 642–646. doi:10.1136/gut.50.5.642. PMC 1773192. PMID 11950809.
  49. ↑ Renehan AG, Zwahlen M, Minder C, O'Dwyer ST, Shalet SM, Egger M (April 2004). "Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein-3, and cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis". Lancet. 363 (9418): 1346–1353. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(04)16044-3. PMID 15110491. S2CID 25549626.
  50. ↑ Miyake H, Pollak M, Gleave ME (June 2000). "Castration-induced up-regulation of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 potentiates insulin-like growth factor-I activity and accelerates progression to androgen independence in prostate cancer models". Cancer Research. 60 (11): 3058–3064. PMID 10850457. For IGFBP-3 it refers to Figueroa JA, De Raad S, Tadlock L, Speights VO, Rinehart JJ (April 1998). "Differential expression of insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in high versus low Gleason score prostate cancer". The Journal of Urology. 159 (4): 1379–1383. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)63620-6. PMID 9507888.
  51. ↑ Birnbaum RS, Ware JL, Plymate SR (June 1994). "Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 expression and secretion by cultures of human prostate epithelial cells and stromal fibroblasts". The Journal of Endocrinology. 141 (3): 535–540. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1410535. PMID 7520932.
  52. ↑ Shi Z, Xu W, Loechel F, Wewer UM, Murphy LJ (June 2000). "ADAM 12, a disintegrin metalloprotease, interacts with insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (24): 18574–18580. doi:10.1074/jbc.M002172200. PMID 10849447.
  53. ↑ Loechel F, Fox JW, Murphy G, Albrechtsen R, Wewer UM (November 2000). "ADAM 12-S cleaves IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 and is inhibited by TIMP-3". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 278 (3): 511–515. doi:10.1006/bbrc.2000.3835. PMID 11095942.
  54. ↑ Mochizuki S, Shimoda M, Shiomi T, Fujii Y, Okada Y (February 2004). "ADAM28 is activated by MMP-7 (matrilysin-1) and cleaves insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 315 (1): 79–84. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.01.022. PMID 15013428.
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