Saint

James the Just
Neo-Byzantine icon of James
Apostle[1] and Martyr, Adelphotheos
BornEarly 1st century
Died62 AD[2][3] or 69 AD[4]
Jerusalem
Venerated inAll Christian denominations that venerate saints
CanonizedPre-Congregation
FeastMay 3 (Catholic), October 23 (Lutheran), (Episcopal Church (USA)), (Eastern Orthodox), December 26 (Eastern Orthodox)
AttributesRed martyr, fuller's club; man holding a book
ControversyThere is disagreement about the exact relationship to Jesus.[lower-alpha 1]

James the Just, or a variation of James, brother of the Lord (Latin: Iacobus from Hebrew: יעקב, Ya'aqov and Greek: Ἰάκωβος, Iákōbos, can also be Anglicized as "Jacob"), was "a brother of Jesus", according to the New Testament. He was the first leader of the Jerusalem Church of the Apostolic Age. Traditionally, it is believed he was martyred in AD 62 or 69 by being stoned to death by the Pharisees on order of High Priest Ananus ben Ananus. James, Joses, Simon, and Judas are mentioned as the brothers or siblings of Jesus as well as two unnamed sisters. (See Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3.)

Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians teach that James, along with others named in the New Testament as "brothers"[lower-alpha 2] of Jesus, were not the biological children of Mary, mother of Jesus, but were possibly cousins of Jesus,[7] or step-brothers from a previous marriage of Joseph (as related in the non-canonical Gospel of James).[8][lower-alpha 3]

The Catholic tradition holds that this James is to be identified with James, son of Alphaeus, and James the Less.[12] It is agreed by most that he should not be confused with James, son of Zebedee also known as James the Great.[1]

Epithet

Eusebius records that Clement of Alexandria related, "This James, whom the people of old called the Just because of his outstanding virtue, was the first, as the record tells us, to be elected to the episcopal throne of the Jerusalem church."[13][14][15] Other epithets are "James the brother of the Lord, surnamed the Just,"[16] and "James the Righteous".

He is sometimes referred to in Eastern Christianity as "James Adelphotheos" (Ancient Greek: Ἰάκωβος ὁ Ἀδελφόθεος), meaning "James the Brother of God". The oldest surviving Christian liturgy, the Liturgy of St James, uses this epithet.[17]

Leader of the Jerusalem Church

The Jerusalem Church

The Jerusalem Church was an early Christian community located in Jerusalem, of which James and Peter were leaders. According to a universal tradition the first bishop was the Apostle James the Less, the "brother of the Lord". His predominant place and residence in the city are implied by Galatians 1:19. Eusebius says he was appointed bishop by Peter, James (the Greater), and John (II, i).[18]

According to Eusebius, the Jerusalem church escaped to Pella during the siege of Jerusalem by the future Emperor Titus in 70 AD and afterwards returned, having a further series of Jewish bishops until the Bar Kokhba revolt in 130 AD. Following the second destruction of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the city as Aelia Capitolina, subsequent bishops were Greeks.[19]

Leader

James the Just, 16th-century Russian icon.

James the Just was "from an early date, with Peter, a leader of the Church at Jerusalem and from the time when Peter left Jerusalem after Herod Agrippa's attempt to kill him, James appears as the principal authority who presided at the Council of Jerusalem."[20]

The Pauline epistles and the later chapters of the Acts of the Apostles portray James as an important figure in the Jewish Christian community of Jerusalem. When Paul arrives in Jerusalem to deliver the money he raised for the faithful there, it is to James that he speaks, and it is James who insists that Paul ritually cleanse himself at Herod's Temple to prove his faith and deny rumors of teaching rebellion against the Torah (Acts 21:18). This was a charge of antinomianism. In Paul's account of his visit to Jerusalem in Galatians 1:18-19, he states that he stayed with Cephas (better known as Peter) and James, the brother of the Lord, was the only other apostle he met.

Paul describes James as being one of the persons to whom the risen Christ showed himself, (1 Corinthians 15:3–8). In Galatians 2:9, Paul mentions James with Cephas (Peter) and John the Apostle as the three Pillars of the Church.[21] Paul describes these pillars as the ones who will minister to the "circumcised" (in general Jews and Jewish Proselytes) in Jerusalem, while Paul and his fellows will minister to the "uncircumcised" (in general Gentiles) (Galatians 2:12),[22][23][note 1] after a debate in response to concerns of the Christians of Antioch. The Antioch community was concerned over whether Gentile Christians need be circumcised to be saved, and sent Paul and Barnabas to confer with the Jerusalem church. James played a prominent role in the formulation of the council's decision. James was the last named figure to speak, after Peter, Paul, and Barnabas; he delivered what he called his "decision" (Acts 15:13-21). The original sense is closer to "opinion".[24] James supported them all in being against the requirement (Peter had cited his earlier revelation from God regarding Gentiles) and suggested prohibitions about eating blood as well as meat sacrificed to idols and fornication. This became the ruling of the council, agreed upon by all the apostles and elders and sent to the other churches by letter.

Modern interpretation

The Encyclopædia Britannica relates that "James the Lord's brother was a Christian apostle, according to St. Paul, although not one of the original Twelve Apostles."[1] According to Protestant theologian Philip Schaff, James seems to have taken the place of James the son of Zebedee, after his martyrdom, around 44 AD.[17]

Modern historians of the early Christian churches tend to place James in the tradition of Jewish Christianity; whereas Paul emphasized faith over observance of Mosaic Law, James is thought to have espoused the opposite position.[note 2]

According to Schaff, James was the local head of the oldest church and the leader of the most conservative portion of Jewish Christianity.[17] Scholar James D. G. Dunn has proposed that Peter was the "bridge-man" between the two other "prominent leading figures", Paul and James the Just.[25]

Sources

Apart from a handful of references in the synoptic Gospels, the main sources for the life of James the Just are the Pauline epistles, the Acts of the Apostles, Josephus, Eusebius and Jerome, the last two of which also quote the early Christian chronicler Hegesippus and Epiphanius.[26] There is no mention of James in the Gospel of John or the early portions of the Acts of the Apostles. The Synoptics mention his name, but provide no further information.

In the extant lists of Pseudo-Hippolytus of Rome,[27] Dorotheus of Tyre, the Chronicon Paschale, and Dimitry of Rostov, he is the first of the Seventy Apostles though some sources, such as the Catholic Encyclopedia,[28] state that "these lists are unfortunately worthless".

Josephus

According to Josephus, in his work Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20, Chapter 9, 1), refers to the stoning of "James the brother of Jesus" by order of Ananus ben Ananus, a Herodian-era High Priest.[29][30]

Ananus, who, as we have told you already, took the high priesthood, was a bold man in his temper, and very insolent; he was also of the sect of the Sadducees, who are very rigid in judging offenders, above all the rest of the Jews, as we have already observed; when, therefore, Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he had now a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]. Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others, [or, some of his companions]; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned.[31]

The James referred to in this passage is most likely the James to whom the Epistle of James has been attributed.[30][32][33] The translations of Josephus' writing into other languages have at times included passages that are not found in the Greek texts, raising the possibility of interpolation, but this passage on James is found in all manuscripts, including the Greek texts.[30]

The context of the passage is the period following the death of Porcius Festus, and the journey to Alexandria by Lucceius Albinus, the new Roman Procurator of Judea, who held that position from 62 CE to 64 CE. [30] Because Albinus' journey to Alexandria had to have concluded no later than the summer of 62 CE, the date of James' death can be assigned with some certainty to around that year.[30][34][29] The 2nd century chronicler Hegesippus also left an account of the death of James, and while the details he provides diverge from those of Josephus, the two accounts share similar elements.[35][36][34]

Modern scholarship has almost universally acknowledged the authenticity of the reference to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James" (τὸν ἀδελφὸν Ἰησοῦ τοῦ λεγομένου Χριστοῦ, Ἰάκωβος ὄνομα αὐτῷ) and has rejected its being the result of later Christian interpolation.[37][38][39][40] Moreover, in comparison with Hegesippus' account of James' death, most scholars consider Josephus' to be the more historically reliable.[35] Some scholars have noted Josephus is more sympathetic to James than his brother.[41]

New Testament

The New Testament mentions several people named James. The Pauline epistles, from about the sixth decade of the 1st century, have two passages mentioning a James. The Acts of the Apostles, written sometime between 60 and 150 AD,[42] also describes the period before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. It has three mentions of a James. The Gospels, with disputed datings ranging from about 50 to as late as 130 AD, describe the period of Jesus's ministry, around 30-33 AD. It mentions at least two different people named James. The author of the Epistle of Jude notes that he is a brother of James in that epistle's opening paragraph.

Epistle of James

The Epistle of James has been traditionally attributed to James the Just since 253,[43][44] but, according to Dan McCartney, it is now common for scholars to disagree on its authorship.[45]

Pauline epistles

Paul mentions meeting James "the Lord's brother" (τὸν ἀδελφὸν τοῦ κυρίου) and later calls him one of the pillars (στύλοι) in the Epistle to the Galatians[46] Galatians 1:18–2:10:

Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas and remained with him fifteen days. But I saw none of the other apostles except James the Lord's brother. (In what I am writing to you, before God, I do not lie!) Then I went into the regions of Syria and Cilicia. ...Then after fourteen years I went up again to Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus along with me. ...Yet because of false brothers secretly brought in—who slipped in to spy out our freedom that we have in Christ Jesus, so that they might bring us into slavery—to them we did not yield in submission even for a moment, so that the truth of the gospel might be preserved for you. And from those who seemed to be influential (what they were makes no difference to me; God shows no partiality)—those, I say, who seemed influential added nothing to me. On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the gospel to the uncircumcised, just as Peter had been entrusted with the gospel to the circumcised (for he who worked through Peter for his apostolic ministry to the circumcised worked also through me for mine to the Gentiles), and when James and Cephas and John, who seemed to be pillars, perceived the grace that was given to me, they gave the right hand of fellowship to Barnabas and me, that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised. Only, they asked us to remember the poor, the very thing I was eager to do.[47]

A "James" is mentioned in Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1 Corinthians 15:7, as one to whom Jesus appeared after his resurrection:

For I delivered unto you first of all that which also I received: that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures; and that he was buried; and that he hath been raised on the third day according to the scriptures; and that he appeared to Cephas; then to the twelve; then he appeared to above five hundred brethren at once, of whom the greater part remain until now, but some are fallen asleep; then he appeared to James; then to all the apostles; and last of all, as to the [child] untimely born, he appeared to me also.[48]

In the preceding verse, the same Greek word "adelphos" (brother) is used, but not in a blood-relation sense:

Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. (1 Corinthians 15:6)

Acts of the Apostles

There is a James mentioned in Acts, which the Catholic Encyclopedia identifies with James, the brother of Jesus: "but he [Peter], beckoning unto them with the hand to hold their peace, declared unto them how the Lord had brought him out of the prison. And he said, Go show these things unto James, and to the brethren. And he departed, and went into another place. (Acts 12:17)

When Peter, having miraculously escaped from prison, must flee Jerusalem due to Herod Agrippa's persecution, he asks for James to be informed (Acts 12:17).

James is also an authority in the early church at the Council of Jerusalem (James is quoting Amos 9:11–12):

And after they had held their peace, James answered, saying, Men and brethren, hearken unto me: Simeon hath declared how God at the first did visit the Gentiles, to take out of them a people for his name. And to this agree the words of the prophets; as it is written, After this I will return, and will build again the tabernacle of David, which is fallen down; and I will build again the ruins thereof, and I will set it up: That the residue of men might seek after the Lord, and all the Gentiles, upon whom my name is called, saith the Lord, who doeth all these things. Known unto God are all his works from the beginning of the world. Wherefore my sentence is, that we trouble not them, which from among the Gentiles are turned to God: But that we write unto them, that they abstain from pollutions of idols, and from fornication, and from things strangled, and from blood. For Moses of old time hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every sabbath day. (Acts 15:13–21)

James is presented as a principal author of the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15.

After this, there is only one more mention of James in Acts, meeting with Paul shortly before Paul's arrest: "And when we were come to Jerusalem, the brethren received us gladly. And the day following Paul went in with us unto James; and all the elders were present. (Acts 21:17–18)

Gospels

The Synoptic Gospels, similarly to the Epistle to the Galatians, recognize a core group of three disciples (Peter, John and James) having the same names as those given by Paul. In the list of the disciples found in the Gospels, two disciples whose names are James, the son of Alphaeus and James, son of Zebedee are mentioned in the list of the twelve disciples: (Matthew 10:1–4)

And he called to him his twelve disciples and gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction. The names of the twelve apostles are these: first, Simon, who is called Peter, and Andrew his brother; James the son of Zebedee, and John his brother; Philip and Bartholomew; Thomas, and Matthew the tax collector; James the son of Alphaeus, and Thaddaeus; Simon the Cananaean, and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him.

The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew also mention a James as Jesus's brother: "Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary, the brother of James, and Joses, and of Judah, and Simon? and are not his sisters here with us? And they were offended at him."[12] The Gospel of John never mentions anyone called James, but mentions Jesus's unnamed "brothers" as being present with Mary when Jesus attended the wedding at Cana (John 2:12), and later that his brothers did not believe in him (John 7:5).

Church Fathers

Fragment X of Papias (writing in the second century) refers to "James the bishop and apostle".[49]

Hegesippus (2nd century), in the fifth book of his Commentaries, mentions that James was made a bishop of Jerusalem but he does not mention by whom: "After the apostles, James the brother of the Lord surnamed the Just was made head of the Church at Jerusalem."[16]

Hegesippus (c.110–c.180), wrote five books (now lost except for some quotations by Eusebius) of Commentaries on the Acts of the Church. In describing James's ascetic lifestyle, Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History (Book II, 23) quotes Hegesippus' account of James from the fifth book of Commentaries on the Acts of the Church:

James, the Lord's brother, succeeds to the government of the Church, in conjunction with the apostles. He has been universally called the Just, from the days of the Lord down to the present time. For many bore the name of James; but this one was holy from his mother's womb. He drank no wine or other intoxicating liquor, nor did he eat flesh; no razor came upon his head; he did not anoint himself with oil, nor make use of the bath. He alone was permitted to enter the holy place: for he did not wear any woollen garment, but fine linen only. He alone, I say, was wont to go into the temple: and he used to be found kneeling on his knees, begging forgiveness for the people-so that the skin of his knees became horny like that of a camel's, by reason of his constantly bending the knee in adoration to God, and begging forgiveness for the people.[50][51]

Clement of Alexandria (late 2nd century) wrote in the sixth book of his Hypotyposes that James the Just was chosen as a bishop of Jerusalem by Peter, James (the Greater) and John:

"For they say that Peter and James and John after the ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove not after honor, but chose James the Just bishop of Jerusalem."[52][53][note 3]

Clement, in the seventh book of the same work, relates also the following concerning him:

"The Lord after his resurrection imparted knowledge (gnōsin) to James the Just and to John and Peter, and they imparted it to the rest of the apostles, and the rest of the apostles to the seventy, of whom Barnabas was one."[56]

According to Eusebius (3rd/4th century) James was named a bishop of Jerusalem by the apostles: "James, the brother of the Lord, to whom the episcopal seat at Jerusalem had been entrusted by the apostles".[57] Jerome wrote the same: "James... after our Lord's passion... ordained by the apostles bishop of Jerusalem..." and that James "ruled the church of Jerusalem thirty years".[58]

Epiphanius (4th century), bishop of Salamis, wrote in his work The Panarion (AD 374–375) that "James, the brother of the Lord died in virginity at the age of ninety-six".[59]

According to Jerome (4th century), James, the Lord's brother, was an apostle, too; Jerome quotes Scriptures as a proof in his work "The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary", writing the following:

Notice, moreover, that the Lord's brother is an apostle, since Paul says «Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas, and tarried with him fifteen days. But other of the Apostles saw I none, save James the Lord's brother.» (Galatians 1:18-19) And in the same Epistle «And when they perceived the grace that was given unto me, James and Cephas and John, who were reputed to be pillars,» (Galatians 2:9)[60]: F.15 

Pseudo-Andrew of Crete (7th century) wrote a biography of James, based entirely on earlier sources, mainly Eusebius.[61]

Early Christian apocrypha

Some apocryphal gospels testify to the reverence Jewish followers of Jesus had for James. The Gospel of the Hebrews confirms the account of Paul in 1 Corinthians regarding the risen Jesus's appearance to James.[58] Jerome (5th century) quotes the non-canonical Gospel of the Hebrews:

'Now the Lord, after he had given his grave clothes to the servant of the priest, appeared to James, for James had sworn that he would not eat bread from that hour in which he had drunk the Lord's cup until he should see him risen from the dead.' And a little further on the Lord says, 'bring a table and bread.' And immediately it is added, 'He took bread and blessed and broke and gave it to James the Just and said to him, "My brother, eat your bread, for the Son of Man is risen from the dead."' And so he ruled the church of Jerusalem thirty years, that is, until the seventh year of Nero.[52][note 4]

The Gospel of Thomas[note 5] confirms the account of Paul in 1 Corinthians regarding the risen Jesus's appearance to James. The Gospel of Thomas relates that the disciples asked Jesus, after his resurrection and before his Ascension, "We are aware that you will depart from us. Who will be our leader?" Jesus said to them, "No matter where you come [from] it is to James the Just that you shall go, for whose sake heaven and earth have come to exist.".[63][64][65][66] Epiphanius (Panarion 29.4) describes James as a Nazirite.[67]

The pseudepigraphical First Apocalypse of James associated with James's name mentions that James and Jesus are not biological brothers, with a rather fragmentary account of the departure (possibly meaning martyrdom) of James appended to the bottom of the manuscript.[68]

The pseudepigraphical Second Apocalypse of James names James's father Theudas rather than Joseph, who is presented as the biological father of James.[69]

The Apocryphon of James, the sole copy of which was found in the Nag Hammadi library and which may have been written in Egypt in the 3rd century,[70] recounts a post-resurrection appearance of the risen Christ to James and Peter that James is said to have recorded in Hebrew.[71]

The Gospel of James (or "Infancy Gospel of James"), a work of the 2nd century, also presents itself as written by James[72] – so that his authorship would lend authority.

In a 4th-century letter pseudographically ascribed to the 1st century Clement of Rome,[73] James was called the "bishop of bishops, who rules Jerusalem, the Holy Church of the Hebrews, and all the Churches everywhere".[74]

Relationship to Jesus, Mary and Joseph

Jesus's brothers – James as well as Jude, Simon and Joses – are named in Matthew 13:55 and Mark 6:3 and mentioned elsewhere. James's name always appears first in lists, which suggests he was the eldest among them.[75] In Jewish Antiquities (20.9.1), Josephus describes James as "the brother of Jesus who is called Christ".

Interpretation of the phrase "brother of the Lord" and similar phrases is divided between those who believe that Mary had additional children after Jesus (e.g., historian Charles Freeman)[76] and those who hold the perpetual virginity of Mary (Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and some Protestants, such as many Anglicans and some Lutherans). The only Catholic doctrine which has been defined regarding the "brothers of the Lord" is that they are not biological children of Mary;[7] thus, Catholics do not consider them as siblings of Jesus.

Near-contemporary sources insist that James was a "perpetual virgin" from the womb, a term which according to Robert Eisenman was later converted to his mother, Mary.[77]

Younger half-brother, son of Mary and Joseph

Some writers, such as R.V. Tasker[78] and D. Hill,[79] interpret the Matthew 1:25 statement that Joseph "knew her not until she had brought forth her firstborn son" as meaning that Joseph and Mary did have normal marital relations after Jesus's birth, and that James, Joses, Jude, and Simon, were the natural sons of Mary and Joseph and, thus, half brothers of Jesus. Others, such as K. Beyer, point out that the Greek ἕως οὗ ('until') after a negative "often has no implication at all about what happened after the limit of the 'until' was reached".[80] Raymond E. Brown also argues that "the immediate context favors a lack of future implication here, for Matthew is concerned only with stressing Mary's virginity before the child's birth".[80]

In addition, Mary, Joseph, and Jesus's brothers or siblings are often described together, without reference to any other relatives (Matthew 12:46–49, Mark 3:31–34, Mark 6:3, Luke 8:19–21, John 2:12, Acts 1:14), and Jesus's brothers are described without allusion to others (John 7:2–5, 1 Corinthians 9:5. For example, Matthew 13:55–56 says, "Isn't this the carpenter's son? Isn't his mother's name Mary, and aren't his brothers James, Joseph, Simon, and Jude? Aren't all his sisters with us?" and John 7:5 says, "Even his own brothers did not believe in him."

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215), Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220), and Helvidius (c. 380) were among the theologians who thought that Mary had children other than Jesus.[81][82] Jerome asserts in his tract The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary, as an answer to Helvidius, that the term "first-born" was used to refer to any offspring that opened the womb, rather than definitely implying other children.[60] Luke's reporting of the visit of Mary, Joseph, and Jesus to the Temple of Jerusalem when Jesus was 12 years old makes no reference to any of Jesus's half-brothers.

The modern scholar Robert Eisenman is of the belief that Luke, as a close follower of Pauline Gentile Christianity, sought to minimize the importance of Jesus's family by whatever means possible, editing James and Jesus's brothers out of the Gospel record.[77] Karl Keating argues that Mary and Joseph rushed without hesitation straight back to Jerusalem, when they realized Jesus was lost, which they would surely have thought twice about doing if there were other children (Jesus's siblings) to look after.[82]

Older stepbrother, son of Joseph by an earlier marriage

The Gospel of James (a 2nd-century apocryphal gospel also called the Protoevangelium of James or the Infancy Gospel of James) says that Mary was betrothed to Joseph and that he already had children. In this case, James was one of Joseph's children from his previous marriage and, therefore, Jesus's stepbrother.

The bishop of Salamis, Epiphanius, wrote too in his work The Panarion (AD 374–375) that "...James (brother of Jesus) was Joseph's son by Joseph's first wife, not by Mary..."[83] He adds that Joseph became the father of James and his three brothers (Joses, Simeon, Judah) and two sisters (a Salome and a Mary[84] or a Salome and an Anna)[85] with James being the elder sibling. James and his siblings were not children of Mary but were Joseph's children from a previous marriage. After Joseph's first wife died, many years later when he was eighty, "he took Mary (mother of Jesus)". According to Epiphanius the Scriptures call them "brothers of the Lord" to confound their opponents.[86][87]

One argument supporting this view is that it would have been against Jewish custom for Jesus to give his mother to the care of John (who is not at all suspected to be a blood relative of Jesus) if Mary had other living sons. This is because the eldest son would take responsibility for his mother after the death of her husband; any other sons of Mary should have taken on this responsibility if they existed, therefore arguing against a direct natural brother relationship.[82][88]

Also, Aramaic and Hebrew tended to use circumlocutions to point out blood relationships; it is asserted that just calling some people "brothers of Jesus" would not have necessarily implied the same mother.[89] Rather, something like "sons of the mother of Jesus" would have been used to indicate a common mother. Scholars and theologians who assert this point out that Jesus was called "the son of Mary" rather than "a son of Mary" in his hometown (Mark 6:3).[12]

Cousin, son of a sister of Mary

James, along with the others named "brothers" of Jesus, are said by others to have been Jesus's cousins. This is justified by the fact that cousins were also called "brothers" and "sisters" in Jesus's native language, Aramaic, which, like Biblical Hebrew, does not contain a word for 'cousin'.[90] Furthermore, the Greek words adelphos and adelphe were not restricted to the meaning of a literal brother or sister in the Bible, nor were their plurals.[89] Unlike some other New Testament authors, the apostle Paul had a perfect command of Greek, a language which has a specific word for 'cousin' and another for 'brother' calling James "the brother of our Lord" (Galatians 1:19).

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275 – c. 339) reports the tradition that James the Just was the son of Joseph's brother Clopas and therefore was of the "brothers" (which he interprets as "cousin") of Jesus described in the New Testament. This is echoed by Jerome (c. 342 – c. 419) in De Viris Illustribus ("On Illustrious Men") – James is said to be the son of another Mary, wife of Clopas and the "sister" of Mary, the mother of Jesus – in the following manner:

James, who is called the brother of the Lord, surnamed the Just, the son of Joseph by another wife, as some think, but, as appears to me, the son of Mary, sister of the mother of our Lord of whom John makes mention in his book...[58]

Jerome refers to the scene of the crucifixion in John 19:25,[91] where three women named Mary – Mary, the mother of Jesus, Mary of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene – are said to be witnesses. John also mentions the "sister" of the mother of Jesus, often identified with Mary of Clopas due to grammar. Mary "of Clopas" is often interpreted as Mary, "wife of Clopas". Mary of Nazareth and Mary of Clopas also need not be literally sisters, in light of the usage of the said words in Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic.[12]

Mary of Clopas is suggested to be the same as "Mary, the mother of James the younger and Joses", "Mary the mother of James and Joseph" and the "other Mary" in Jesus's crucifixion and post-resurrection accounts in the Synoptic Gospels. Proponents of this identification argue that the writers of the Synoptics would have called this Mary, simply, "the mother of Jesus" if she was indeed meant to be the mother of Jesus, given the importance of her son's crucifixion and resurrection: they also note that the mother of James and Joses is called "Maria", whereas the mother of Jesus is "Mariam" or "Marias" in Greek. These proponents find it unlikely that Mary would be referred to by her natural children other than Jesus at such a significant time (James happens to be the brother of one Joses, as spelled in Mark, or Joseph, as in Matthew).[89][lower-alpha 4]

Jerome's opinion suggests an identification of James the Just with the Apostle James, son of Alphaeus; Clopas and Alphaeus are thought to be different Greek renderings of the same Aramaic name Khalphai.[89] Despite this, some biblical scholars tend to distinguish them; this is also not Catholic dogma, though a traditional teaching.

Since this Clopas is, according to Eusebius, Joseph of Nazareth's brother (see above) and Mary of Clopas is said to be Mary of Nazareth's sister, James could be related to Jesus by blood and law.[12]

Younger half-brother, son of Mary and a second husband

A variant on this is presented by James Tabor,[75] who argues that after the early and childless death of Joseph, Mary married Clopas, whom he accepts as a younger brother of Joseph, according to the Levirate law. According to this view, Clopas fathered James and the later siblings, but not Jesus.

John Dominic Crossan suggested that James was probably Jesus's older brother.[92]

Identification with James, son of Alpheus, and with James the Less

A Mary is also mentioned as the mother of James, the Younger and of Joseph in the Gospel of Mark:

Some women were watching from a distance. Among them were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the Younger and of Joseph, and Salome. (Mark 15:40)

On the other hand, another Mary is mentioned as the mother of a James and of a Joseph in the Gospel of Matthew and in the Gospel of Mark:

When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought spices so that they might go to anoint Jesus's body. (Mark 16:1)

Among them were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joseph, and the mother of Zebedee's sons. (Matthew 27:56)

Catholic interpretation generally holds that James, the Younger is the same James mentioned in Mark 16:1 and Matthew 27:56 and it is to be identified with James, the son of Alphaeus and James, the brother of Jesus.[12] According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he is not identified with James the Great,[12] although this is disputed by some.[77]

Possible identity with James, son of Alphaeus

Jerome believed that the "brothers" of the Lord were Jesus's cousins, thus amplifying the doctrine of perpetual virginity. Jerome concluded that James "the brother of the Lord", (Galatians 1:19) is therefore James, son of Alphaeus, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, and the son of Mary Cleophas.[12]

In two small but potentially important works of Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles of Christ and On the Seventy Apostles of Christ, he relates the following:

And James the son of Alphaeus, when preaching in Jerusalem was stoned to death by the Jews, and was buried there beside the temple.[93]

James, the brother of Jesus, was also stoned to death by the Jews.[94][95]

These two works of Hippolytus are often neglected because the manuscripts were lost during most of the church age and then found in Greece in the 19th century. As most scholars consider them spurious, they are often ascribed to Pseudo-Hippolytus. The two are included in an appendix to the works of Hippolytus in the voluminous collection of Early Church Fathers.[96]

According to the surviving fragments of the work Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord of the Apostolic Father Papias of Hierapolis, who lived c. 70–163 AD, Cleophas and Alphaeus are the same person, and Mary the wife of Cleophas or Alphaeus would be the mother of James the brother of Jesus, and of Simon and Judas (Thaddeus), and of one Joseph.

(1) Mary the mother of the Lord; (2) Mary the wife of Cleophas or Alphaeus, who was the mother of James the bishop and apostle, and of Simon and Thaddeus, and of one Joseph; (3) Mary Salome, wife of Zebedee, mother of John the evangelist and James; (4) Mary Magdalene. These four are found in the Gospel...

— Fragment X[49]

Thus James, the brother of the Lord would be the son of Alphaeus, who is the husband of Mary the wife of Cleophas or Mary the wife of Alphaeus. The identification of James as the son of Alpheus was perpetuated into the 13th century in the hagiography The Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine.[97][98]

Possible identity with James the Less

Jerome also concluded that James "the brother of the Lord" is the same as James the Less. To explain this, Jerome first tells that James the Less must be identified with James, the son of Alphaeus, and reports in his work The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary the following:

Do you intend the comparatively unknown James the Less, who is called in Scripture the son of Mary, not however of Mary the mother of our Lord, to be an apostle, or not? If he is an apostle, he must be the son of Alphæus and a believer in Jesus.

The only conclusion is that the Mary, who is described as the mother of James the Less was the wife of Alphæus and sister of Mary the Lord's mother, the one who is called by John the Evangelist "Mary of Clopas".[60]: F.15 

After saying that James the Less is the same as James, the son of Mary of Cleophas, wife of Alphaeus and sister of Mary the Lord's mother, Jerome describes in his work De Viris Illustribus that James "the brother of the Lord" is the same as James, the son of Alpaheus and Mary of Cleophas:

James, who is called the brother of the Lord, surnamed the Just, the son of Joseph by another wife, as some think, but, as appears to me, the son of Mary sister of the mother our Lord Mary of Cleophas of whom John makes mention in his book (John 19:25).[58]

Thus, Jerome concludes that James, the son of Alphaeus, James the Less, and James, brother of the Lord, are one and the same person.

Other relationships

Also, Jesus and James could be related in some other way, not strictly "cousins", following the non-literal application of the term adelphos and the Aramaic term for 'brother'.[89] According to the apocryphal First Apocalypse of James, James is not the earthly brother of Jesus, but a spiritual brother[99] who according to the Gnostics "received secret knowledge from Jesus prior to the Passion".[100]

Death

Clement of Alexandria relates that "James was thrown from the pinnacle of the Temple, and was beaten to death with a club".[94]

Hegesippus cites that "the Scribes and Pharisees placed James upon the pinnacle of the temple, and threw down the just man, and they began to stone him, for he was not killed by the fall. And one of them, who was a fuller, took the club with which he beat out clothes and struck the just man on the head".[94]

Martyrdom of James the Just in Menologion of Basil II, a manuscript dating from late 10th or early 11th century.

According to a passage found in Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews (20.9.1), "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James" met his death after the death of the procurator Porcius Festus but before Lucceius Albinus had assumed office  – which has been dated to 62.[101] The High Priest Hanan ben Hanan (Ananus ben Ananus) took advantage of this lack of imperial oversight to assemble a Sanhedrin (literally a synhedrion kriton in Greek, a "Sanhedrin of judges"), which condemned James "on the charge of breaking the law," then had him executed by stoning (Antiquities 20.9.1). Josephus reports that Hanan's act was widely viewed as little more than judicial murder and offended a number of "those who were considered the most fair-minded people in the city, and strict in their observance of the Law", who went so far as to arrange a meeting with Albinus as he entered the province in order to petition him successfully about the matter. In response, King Agrippa II replaced Ananus with Jesus son of Damneus.[102]

Origen related an account of the death of James which gave it as a cause of the Roman siege of Jerusalem, something not found in the existing manuscripts of Josephus.[103][104]

Eusebius wrote that "the more sensible even of the Jews were of the opinion that this (James' death) was the cause of the siege of Jerusalem, which happened to them immediately after his martyrdom for no other reason than their daring act against him. Josephus, at least, has not hesitated to testify this in his writings, where he says, "These things happened to the Jews to avenge James the Just, who was a brother of Jesus, that is called the Christ. For the Jews slew him, although he was a most just man.""[94]

Eusebius, while quoting Josephus' account, also records otherwise lost passages from Hegesippus (see links below) and Clement of Alexandria (Historia Ecclesiae, 2.23). Hegesippus' account varies somewhat from what Josephus reports and may be an attempt to reconcile the various accounts by combining them. According to Hegesippus, the scribes and Pharisees came to James for help in putting down Christian beliefs. The record says:

They came, therefore, in a body to James, and said: "We entreat thee, restrain the people: for they have gone astray in their opinions about Jesus, as if he were the Christ. We entreat thee to persuade all who have come hither for the day of the passover, concerning Jesus. For we all listen to thy persuasion; since we, as well as all the people, bear thee testimony that thou art just, and showest partiality to none. Do thou, therefore, persuade the people not to entertain erroneous opinions concerning Jesus: for all the people, and we also, listen to thy persuasion. Take thy stand, then, upon the summit of the temple, that from that elevated spot thou mayest be clearly seen, and thy words may be plainly audible to all the people. For, in order to attend the passover, all the tribes have congregated hither, and some of the Gentiles also."[105][106][107] To the scribes' and Pharisees' dismay, James boldly testified that "Christ himself sitteth in heaven, at the right hand of the Great Power, and shall come on the clouds of heaven". The scribes and pharisees then said to themselves, "We have not done well in procuring this testimony to Jesus. But let us go up and throw him down, that they may be afraid, and not believe him."

Accordingly, the scribes and Pharisees

... threw down the just man... [and] began to stone him: for he was not killed by the fall; but he turned, and kneeled down, and said: "I beseech thee, Lord God our Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do."

And, while they were there, stoning him to death, one of the priests, the sons of Rechab, the son of Rechabim, to whom testimony is borne by Jeremiah the prophet, began to cry aloud, saying: "Cease, what do ye? The just man is praying for us." But one among them, one of the fullers, took the staff with which he was accustomed to wring out the garments he dyed, and hurled it at the head of the just man.

And so he suffered martyrdom; and they buried him on the spot, and the pillar erected to his memory still remains, close by the temple. This man was a true witness to both Jews and Greeks that Jesus is the Christ. And shortly after Vespasian besieged Judaea, taking them captive.

— Fragments from the Acts of the Church; Concerning the Martyrdom of James, the Brother of the Lord, from Book 5.[105]

Vespasian's siege and capture of Jerusalem delayed the selection of Simeon of Jerusalem to succeed James.

According to Philip Schaff in 1904, this account by "Hegesippus has been cited over and over again by historians as assigning the date of the martyrdom to 69," though he challenged the assumption that Hegesippus gives anything to denote such a date.[108] Josephus does not mention in his writings how James was buried.[109]

Feast day

In the Catholic Church, the feast day of Philip the Apostle, along with that of James the Lesser (Catholics identify him with James the Just as the same person), was traditionally observed on 1 May, the anniversary of the church dedicated to them in Rome (now called the Church of the Twelve Apostles). Then this combined feast transferred to May 3 in the current ordinary calendar.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, James is commemorated as "Apostle James the Just, brother of Our Lord", and as such, multiple days are assigned to his feasts. His first feast day in the church calendar year is on October 23.[110] His next feast day is on the first Sunday after the feast of the Nativity, where he is commemorated with King David and Joseph the Betrothed.[111] His final feast day is on January 4 among the Seventy Apostles.[112] He is also commemorated on 26 December (Synaxis of the Mother of God). On 1 December occurs commemoration of his, Simeon and Zacharias relics translation in 351, and 25 May is commemoration of their relics discover also in 351.[113]

Recent versions of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America and Lutheran Church have added commemoration on the traditional Eastern Orthodox date of October 23.

James is remembered (with Philip) in the Church of England with a Festival on 1 May.[114]

The ossuary controversy

In the November 2002 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, André Lemaire of the Sorbonne University in Paris published the report that an ossuary bearing the inscription "Ya'aqov bar Yosef achui d'Yeshua" ("James son of Joseph brother of Jesus") had been identified belonging to a collector, Oded Golan. The ossuary was exhibited at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, late that year; but on June 18, 2003, the Israeli Antiquities Authority published a report concluding, based on an analysis of the patina, that the inscription is a modern forgery. Specifically, it appeared that the inscription had been added recently and made to look old by addition of a chalk solution. Following this, the Ossuary was removed by the Royal Ontario Museum.[115]

On December 29, 2004, Golan was indicted in an Israeli court along with three other men – Robert Deutsch, an inscriptions expert who teaches at Haifa University; collector Shlomo Cohen; and antiquities dealer Faiz al-Amaleh. They were accused of being part of a forgery ring that had been operating for more than 20 years. Golan denied the charges against him. According to the BBC, "when the police took Oded Golan into custody and searched his apartment they discovered a workshop with a range of tools, materials, and half finished 'antiquities'. This was evidence for a fraud of a scale far greater than they had suspected."[116] On March 14, 2012, Golan was declared not guilty of all charges of forgery, although with the judge saying this acquittal "does not mean that the inscription on the ossuary is authentic or that it was written 2,000 years ago" and "it was not proven in any way that the words 'the brother of Jesus' necessarily refer to the 'Jesus' who appears in Christian writings" and that there is "nothing in these findings which necessarily proves that the items were authentic".[117][118]

The Israeli Antiquities Authority and several scholars still maintain that the James Ossuary is a modern forgery, and the artefact is not usually quoted by scholars of the historical Jesus.[119][120]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ In Koine Greek, ἀδελφός (adelphos, 'brother') as found in both the Septuagint[5] and NT writings, can mean a full, half, step brother or adopted brother, a kinsman (cousin, etc.), as well as a "fellow" – a "kinsman" in trade or belief but not of any blood relationship. High Church Christians (Catholics, Orthodox, and some Anglican and Lutheran Protestant denominations) and some Reformed churches who maintain early Church teachings generally hold him as either a step-brother or a cousin, whereas most Low Church Protestant denominations maintain James is a younger brother from Mary and Joseph as a "proof" against Mary's "ever-virgin" status.
  2. ↑ Ancient Greek: ἀδελφοί, romanized: adelphoi, lit. 'brothers'.[6]
  3. ↑ Since Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, as well as some Anglicans and Lutherans, believe in the perpetual virginity of Mary.[9][10][11]
  4. ↑ This position is articulated in footnotes of the Christian Community Bible, published by Claretian Communications.
  1. ↑ These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean Jews and Greeks, who were predominant. This is an oversimplification, as 1st-century Judaea Province also had some Jews who no longer circumcised and some Greeks and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.
  2. ↑ One corpus commonly cited as proof of this are the Recognitions and Homilies of Clement (also known as the Clementine literature), versions of a novel that has been dated to as early as the 2nd century, where James appears as a saintly figure who is assaulted by an unnamed enemy some modern critics think may be Paul.
  3. ↑ See the Early Church Fathers[54] and Jerome.[55]
  4. ↑ See Jerome[55] and the Early Church Fathers.[62]
  5. ↑ One of the works included in the Nag Hammadi library.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Saint-James. Apostle, the Lord's brother". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  2. ↑ Eddy, Paul R.; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic. p. 130. ISBN 9780801031144.
  3. ↑ According to Josephus
  4. ↑ According to Hegesippus, Clement of Alexandria, and Eusebius of Caesarea
  5. ↑ Septuagint
  6. ↑ Greek New Testament, Matthew 13:55: "οὐχ οὖτός ἐστιν ὁ τοῦ τέκτονος υἱός; οὐχ ἡ μήτηρ αὐτοῦ λέγεται μαριὰμ καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ αὐτοῦ ἰάκωβος καὶ ἰωσὴφ καὶ σίμων καὶ ἰούδας;"
  7. 1 2 Akin, Jimmy, "I: Burial Box of St. James Found?", Ossuary of James, Catholic Answers, archived from the original on 2014-02-10
  8. ↑ Origen of Alexandria. "The Brethren of Jesus". Origen's Commentary on Matthew 10.17 in Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume IX. Retrieved 2008-09-18. "But some say, basing it on a tradition in the Gospel according to Peter, as it is entitled, or 'The Book of James', that the brethren of Jesus were sons of Joseph by a former wife, whom he married before Mary. Now those who say so wish to preserve the honour of Mary in virginity to the end…"
  9. ↑ Longenecker, Dwight; Gustafson, David (2003). Mary: A Catholic Evangelical Debate. Gracewing Publishing. p. 64. ISBN 9780852445822. Retrieved 8 July 2014. The perpetual virginity of Mary is a beautiful and fitting belief upheld by the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, as well as many Anglicans and Lutherans. Furthermore, it was defended not only by the ancient church fathers, but by Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, and the classic Anglican theologians. John Wesley also believed in the perpetual virginity of Mary, writing, "I believe he [Jesus Christ] was born of the blessed Virgin, who, as well after she brought him forth, continued a pure and unspotted virgin."
  10. ↑ Richard R. Lorsch, All the People in the Bible (Eerdmans 2008, p. 283 ISBN 978-0-80282454-7)
  11. ↑ Jackson, Gregory Lee, Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3 page 254
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Camerlynck, Achille (1910), "St. James the Less", The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8, New York: Robert Appleton Company (retrieved from New Advent)
  13. ↑ The brother of Jesus: James the Just and his mission p.33 Bruce Chilton, Jacob Neusner – 2001 p. 34: "It is unlikely that he restricts his reference to him because he is soon to quote from Hegesippus' account ... Another tradition transmitted by Clement made James the Just, Cephas, and John the recipients of secret knowledge."
  14. ↑ Haase, Wolfgang. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: (ANRW) : Geschichte 21 -26 p801, 1992, "In the latter, which according to Eusebius, Hegesippus knew (HE IV.22.8), no explanation is given for the title; it merely says that the risen Jesus gave bread to "James the Just and said to him, My brother ..."
  15. ↑ Painter, John. Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition p. 115, 2005 "Eusebius' language in the earlier summary (2.1.2) suggests that Clement was not the first to do so because the people of old had named James "the Just." He later quotes Hegesippus' account of the martyrdom of James..."
  16. 1 2 Schaff: "Hegesippus, who lived near the apostolic age, in the fifth book of his Commentaries, writing of James, says 'After the apostles, James the brother of the Lord surnamed the Just was made head of the Church at Jerusalem.'"
  17. 1 2 3 Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, chapter 4, § 27. James the Brother of the Lord: "And in the Liturgy of St. James, the brother of Jesus is raised to the dignity of "the brother of the very God".
  18. ↑ Fortescue, Adrian. "Jerusalem (A.D. 71-1099)." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 24 September 2021 Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  19. ↑ "Jerusalem in Early Christian Thought" p75 Explorations in a Christian theology of pilgrimage ed Craig G. Bartholomew, Fred Hughes
  20. ↑ Cross, F.L., ed. (2005). The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 862. ISBN 9780192802903. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  21. ↑ "Footnote on 2:9", Galatians 2 from New American Bible, USCCB
  22. ↑ Galatians 2:12
  23. ↑ "Footnote on 2:12", Galatians 2 from New American Bible, USCCB
  24. ↑ Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 3 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993); See also Strong's G2919 Archived 2007-12-19 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man (pontifex maximus!) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus, and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Galatians 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked [...] Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]
  26. ↑ Wilhelm Schneemelcher, Neutestamentarische Apokryphen. In deutscher Übersetzung: 2 Bde., Mohr Siebeck; 1999, Vol. 1, p. 363
  27. ↑ "Ante-Nicene Fathers: The Same Hippolytus on the Seventy Apostles". Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  28. ↑ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Disciple" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  29. 1 2 Harding 2003, p. 317.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Painter 2005, pp. 134–141.
  31. ↑ Flavius Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, Book 20, Chapter 9, 1, based on the translation of Louis H. Feldman, The Loeb Classical Library.
  32. ↑ Freedman, Myers & Beck 2000, p. 670.
  33. ↑ Neale 2003, pp. 2–3.
  34. 1 2 Mitchell & Young 2006, p. 297.
  35. 1 2 Painter 2004, p. 126.
  36. ↑ Bauckham 1999, pp. 199–203.
  37. ↑ Van Voorst 2000, p. 83.
  38. ↑ Richard Bauckham states that although a few scholars have questioned this passage, "the vast majority have considered it to be authentic" (Bauckham 1999, pp. 199–203).
  39. ↑ Feldman & Hata 1987, pp. 54–57.
  40. ↑ Flavius Josephus & Maier 1995, pp. 284–285.
  41. ↑ Bermejo-Rubio, Fernando. “Was the Hypothetical ‘Vorlage’ of the ‘Testimonium Flavianum’ a ‘Neutral’ Text? Challenging the Common Wisdom on ‘Antiquitates Judaicae’ 18.63-64.” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, vol. 45, no. 3, Brill, 2014, pp. 326–65, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24667592.Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  42. ↑ Tyson, Joseph B. (April 2011). "When and Why Was the Acts of the Apostles Written?". The Bible and Interpretation. Retrieved August 8, 2014.
  43. ↑ Peter H. Davids, The Epistle of James: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Eerdmans, 1982). ISBN 978-0-8028-2388-5
  44. ↑ Craig A. Evans, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation, page 260 (Cook Communication Ministries, 2005). ISBN 0-7814-4228-1
  45. ↑ McCartney, Dan G. (2009-11-01). James. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0-8010-2676-8.
  46. ↑ Shillington, V. George (2015). James and Paul: The Politics of Identity at the Turn of the Ages. Fortres Press. pp. 3–31. ISBN 978-1-4514-8213-3.
  47. ↑ Galatians 1:18–2:10
  48. ↑ 1 Corinthians 15:3-9
  49. 1 2 of Hierapolis, Papias. Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord. Fragment X. earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  50. ↑ "Hegesippus (Roberts-Donaldson translation)". Early Christian Writings. Peter Kirby.
  51. ↑ Churton, Tobias Churton (2012). The Missing Family of Jesus: An Inconvenient Truth - How the Church Erased Jesus's Brothers and Sisters from History. Watkins Media Limited. ISBN 9781780282572.
  52. 1 2 Jerome, On Illustrious Men, 2
  53. ↑ "Eusebius Church History Book 2:1 quoting Clement of Alexandria's Sixth Hypotyposes". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2011-07-10.
  54. ↑ Early Church Fathers
  55. 1 2 Jerome
  56. ↑ of Caesarea, Eusebius. Church History Book II Chapter 1:3-4. www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
  57. ↑ of Caesarea, Eusebius. Church History Book II Chapter 23:1. www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
  58. 1 2 3 4 saint, Jerome. De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) Chapter 2. newadvent.org. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  59. ↑ Williams, translated by Frank (2013). The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: De fide. Books II and III (Sects 47-80, De Fide) in Sect 78. Against Antidicomarians (Second, revised ed.). Leiden [u.a.]: Brill. pp. 626–627. ISBN 978-9004228412. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
  60. 1 2 3 saint, Jerome. The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary. newadvent.org. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  61. ↑ S. G. Hall, "Review of Un Éloge de Jacques, le frère du Seigneur, par un pseudo-André de Crète," The Journal of Theological Studies, n. ser., Vol. 31, No. 1 (1980), pp. 226–228. JSTOR 23959210
  62. ↑ Early Church Fathers.
  63. ↑ "James the Brother of Jesus". Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  64. ↑ The Gospel of Thomas, login 12
  65. ↑ New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and related writings, by Wilhelm Schneemelcher, Robert McLachlan, p. 119
  66. ↑ "Gospel of Thomas (Lambdin Translation) -- The Nag Hammadi Library".
  67. ↑ of Salamis, Epiphanius. Panarion 29. nazarenespace.com. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  68. ↑ The (First) Apocalypse of James -- The Nag Hammadi Library. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  69. ↑ W. Hedrick, Charles. The (Second) Apocalypse of James. www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  70. ↑ Robinson, James M., ed. (1978) The Nag Hammadi Library Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-066933-0
  71. ↑ The Secret Book of James. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  72. ↑ Barriger, Lawrence. "American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese of North America - The Protoevangelium of St. James". www.ACROD.org. Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
  73. ↑ Riddle, M.B., "Introductory Notice To Pseudo-Clementine Literature", The Ante-Nicene Fathers: The twelve patriarchs, Excerpts and epistles, The Clementina, Apocrypha, Decretals, Memoirs of Edessa and Syriac documents, Ernest Cushing Richardson and Bernhard Pick, eds., C. Scribner's Sons, 1886, pp. 69-71
  74. ↑ Ernest Cushing Richardson and Bernhard Pick, eds. (1886), "The Ante-Nicene Fathers: The twelve patriarchs, Excerpts and epistles, The Clementina, Apocrypha, Decretals, Memoirs of Edessa and Syriac documents, Remains of the first ages", C. Scribner's Sons, pp. 218-222
  75. 1 2 Tabor, James D (2006). The Jesus Dynasty: A New Historical Investigation of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-8723-1.
  76. ↑ Freeman, Charles (2009). A new history of early Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12581-8. OCLC 317361785.
  77. 1 2 3 Eisenman, Robert (2002), James, the Brother of Jesus" (Watkins)
  78. ↑ Tasker, R.V., The Gospel according to Saint Matthew (InterVarsity Press 1961), p. 36
  79. ↑ Hill D., The Gospel of Matthew, p80 (1972) Marshall, Morgan and Scott:London
  80. 1 2 Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah (Doubleday 1999, p. 132 ISBN 978-0-385-49447-2)
  81. ↑ The Encyclopaedia Britannica: Saint James | apostle, the Lord's brother. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  82. 1 2 3 Karl Keating (1988), Catholicism and Fundamentalism: The Attack on "Romanism" by "Bible Christians", Ignatius Press, pp. 284–287, ISBN 9780898701777
  83. ↑ Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus). The Panarion Book I (Sects 1-46) Part 29:3:9 and 29:4:1. masseiana.org. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  84. ↑ Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus); Frank Williams (specialist in early Christian texts); Holl, Karl (2013). The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: De fide. Books II and III. Leiden [u.a.]: BRILL. p. 622. ISBN 978-9004228412.
  85. ↑ St. Epiphanius of Cyprus (2014). Ancoratus 60:1. Translated by Young Richard Kim. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8132-2591-3. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  86. ↑ Williams, translated by Frank (1994). The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis : Books II and III (Sects 47-80, De Fide) in Sect 78:9:6. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 607. ISBN 9789004098985. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
  87. ↑ Williams, translated by Frank (2013). The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis (Second, revised ed.). Leiden [u.a.]: Brill. p. 36. ISBN 9789004228412. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
  88. ↑ Constantine Zalalas: Holy Theotokos: Apologetic Study
  89. 1 2 3 4 5 Bechtel, Florentine. "The Brethren of the Lord." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 28 Dec. 2014
  90. ↑ "Classical Greek has a word for cousin, amepsios, but Aramaic and Hebrew do not, and it is the Semitic way of speaking and thinking about kinship that is reflected in the Greek of the New Testament" in, John Saward, Cradle of Redeeming Love: the Theology of the Christmas Mystery, page 18 (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2002). ISBN 0-89870-886-9
  91. ↑ John 19:25
  92. ↑ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). A Revolutionary Biography. HarperCollins. pp. 23–24. ISBN 0060616628. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
  93. ↑ of Rome, Pseudo-Hippolytus. "On the Twelve Apostles" and "On the Seventy Disciples". newadvent.org. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  94. 1 2 3 4 of Caesarea, Eusebius. Church History Book II Chapter 23. The Martyrdom of James, who was called the Brother of the Lord. www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
  95. ↑ Lyons, George. Antiquities of the Jews - Book XX, Chapter 9:CONCERNING ALBINUS UNDER WHOSE PROCURATORSHIP JAMES WAS SLAIN. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  96. ↑ Ante-Nicean Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson and A. Cleaveland Coxe, vol. 5 (Peabody MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1999), 254–6
  97. ↑ Stracke, Richard. Golden Legend: Life of Saint James the Less. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  98. ↑ de Voragine, Iacobus (1260). "The Golden Legend (Aurea Legenda), Volume Three, Of S. James the Less". IntraText Digital Library. William Caxton 1483. Retrieved October 29, 2018. James the apostle is said the Less, how well that he was elder of age than was S. James the More, because like as is in religion he that entered first is called aine and great, and he that cometh after shall be called less, though he be the older, and in this wise was this S. James called the less. He was called also the brother of our Lord, because he resembled much well our Lord in body, in visage, and of manner. He was called James the Just for his right great holiness, for S. Jerome recordeth that he was so holy that the people strove how they might touch the hem of his robe or mantle. He was also called James the son of Alpheus.
  99. ↑ "The First Apocalypse of James's' also denies that James is blood relative of Jesus" in, Watson E. Mills (general editor), Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, page 429 (Mercer University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-86554-373-9
  100. ↑ Ryan Byrne, Bernadette McNary-Zak, Resurrecting the Brother of Jesus: The James Ossuary Controversy and the Quest for Religious Relics, page 101 (University of North Carolina Press, 2009). ISBN 978-0-8078-3298-1
  101. ↑ Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, Volume I: Apostolic Christianity. A.D. 1-100. - Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  102. ↑ Shillington, V. George (2015). James and Paul: The Politics of Identity at the Turn of the Ages. Fortress Press. pp. 145–150. ISBN 978-1-4514-8213-3.
  103. ↑ "Origen twice asserts that Josephus said that the destruction of Jerusalem occurred because of what was done to James. The argument was that the destruction was a consequence of divine retribution because of what was done to James" in, John Painter, Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition, page 205 (Fortress Press, 1997). ISBN 0-567-08697-6
  104. ↑ "Origen appreciates Josephus by noting that he has 'researched on the cause of the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple' and concludes that Josephus is 'not far from the truth' in concluding that the reason for the calamity was the assassination of James the Just by the Jews", in "Origen and Josephus" by Wataru Mizugaki, in Louis H. Feldman, Gohei Hata (editors), Josephus, Judaism and Christianity, page 329 (Wayne State University Press, 1987). ISBN 0-8143-1831-2
  105. 1 2 Fragments from the Acts of the Church; Concerning the Martyrdom of James, the Brother of the Lord, from Book 5.
  106. ↑ Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Vol XXII, P142
  107. ↑ Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, Vol II, Chapter XXIII
  108. ↑ Schaff, Philip (1904) Henry Wace "A Select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church" BiblioBazaar ISBN 1-110-37346-5
  109. ↑ See also Shillington, V. George (2015). James and Paul: the Politics of Identity at the Turn of the Ages. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 45–50. ISBN 978-1-4514-8213-3.
  110. ↑ "Apostle James, the Brother of the Lord". www.oca.org. Archived from the original on November 23, 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  111. ↑ "Commemoration of the Holy Righteous David the King, Joseph the Betrothed, and James the Brother of the Lord". www.oca.org. Archived from the original on April 29, 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  112. ↑ "Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles". www.oca.org. Archived from the original on October 2, 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  113. ↑ "ИАКОВ, БРАТ ГОСПОДЕНЬ - Древо". drevo-info.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 2023-10-02.
  114. ↑ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 2021-03-27.
  115. ↑ "Israel Antiquities Authority - Articles". 2014-04-08. Archived from the original on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
  116. ↑ Myllykoski, Matti (2007). "on Oded Golan Matti Myllykoski concluded: "The authenticity and significance of the ossuary has been defended by Shanks (2003), while many scholars – relying on convincing evidence, to say the least – strongly suspect that it is a modern forgery". James the Just in History and Tradition: Perspectives of Past and Present Scholarship (Part II)," Currents in Biblical Research 6:11, P.84. BBC. doi:10.1177/1476993X07080242. S2CID 220655814.
  117. ↑ "Golan and Deutsch Acquitted of All Forgery Charges". Biblical Archaeology Society. 14 March 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  118. ↑ "Oded Golan is not guilty of forgery. So is the 'James ossuary' for real?". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  119. ↑ "The Response of the Israel Antiquities Authority to the Verdict by the Jerusalem District Court in the Matter of the Forgeries Trial Jerusalem District Court in the Matter of the Forgeries Trial". www.antiquities.org.il. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
  120. ↑ "THE JAMES OSSUARY (YA'AKOV OSSUARY): BULLET POINT SYNOPSIS ABOUT A PROBABLE MODERN FORGERY - Bible Epigraphy - - Rollston Epigraphy". Retrieved 2021-06-04.

Bibliography

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  • Bauckham, Richard (1999). "For What Offense was James put to Death?". In Chilton, Bruce; Evans, Craig A. (eds.). James the Just and Christian origins. BRILL. pp. 199–232. ISBN 978-90-04-11550-7.
  • Raymond E. Brown. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
  • Robert Eisenman; James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Viking Penguin, 1997.
  • Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei, eds. (1987). Josephus, Judaism and Christianity. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-08554-1. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  • Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war. Kregel Academic. ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6.
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  • Harding, Mark (2003). Early Christian Life and Thought in Social Context. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 0-8264-5604-9.
  • Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81239-9.
  • Neale, John Mason (2003). A History of the Holy Eastern Church. Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-045-6.
  • Painter, John (2004). "Who was James?". In Chilton, Bruce; Neusner, Jacob (eds.). The brother of Jesus: James the Just and his mission. Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-5152-6.
  • Painter, John (2005). Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 0-567-04191-3.
  • Hershel Shanks and Ben Witherington, The Brother of Jesus. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. ISBN 0-06-055660-9
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  • Francis Watson. Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles. Cultural background.
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