This page lists substances used in ritualistic context.

Psychoactive use

Entheogens

This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified as hallucinogens. The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified as soft drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Bufotoxins Bufo alvarius (and other Bufo spp.) Secretion: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin (et al.) Psychedelic Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[1] Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art.
Bullet ant venom Paraponera clavata Secretion: Poneratoxin Deliriant The Satere-Mawe people use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times.[2]

Mushroom

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Dictyonema huaorani Dictyonema huaorani 5-MeO-DMT, DMT, psilocybin Psychedelic Confirmed used by shamans.[3]
Fly agaric Amanita muscaria Muscimol, ibotenic acid Depressant, and dissociative Siberian shamans.[4] Scandinavia. Lithuania.
Panther cap Amanita pantherina Muscimol, ibotenic acid Depressant, and dissociative
Psilocybin mushroom Psilocybe spp. (etc.) Psilocybin and psilocin;
baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin (in trace amounts or in select species)		 Psychedelic Mazatec[5]

Plant

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
African dream herb Entada rheedii Seed Oneirogen The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams.[6]
African dream root Silene undulata Root: Possibly triterpenoid saponins Oneirogen Xhosa people of South Africa.[7]
Angel's trumpet Brugmansia spp. Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids Deliriant South America,[8] sometimes used as part of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi Bark: Harmine 0.31-0.84%,[9] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[10] 5-MeO-DMT[11] Psychedelic South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest. UDV of Brazil and United States.
Bitter-grass Calea ternifolia Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes Oneirogen The Chontal people of Oaxaca reportedly use the plant, known locally as thle-pela-kano, during divination.
Bolivian torch cactus Echinopsis lageniformis Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Cannabis (and cannabis concentrates) Cannabis spp. Flower: Cannabinoids (THC, and CBD) Psychedelic Hindu religion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (see entheogenic use of cannabis)
Chacruna Psychotria viridis Leaf: DMT Psychedelic UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. Santo Daime have used it as part of ayahuasca.
Chaliponga Diplopterys cabrerana Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT Psychedelic Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of ayahuasca.
Changa A DMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend DMT/MAOI Psychedelic Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.
Christmasvine Turbina corymbosa Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids[12] Psychedelic Mazatec[13]
Harmal (espand, Syrian rue) Peganum harmala Seed: Harmaline and other harmala alkaloids Psychedelic Iran and the Middle East.
Hawaiian baby woodrose Argyreia nervosa Seed: 0.325% ergoline derivatives of dry weight.[14] Psychedelic Huna shamans used them according to various oral histories.[15]
Henbane Hyoscyamus niger Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids Deliriant Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages.
Iboga Tabernanthe iboga Root bark: Ibogaine[16] Psychedelic Bwiti religion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.
Jimson weed Datura stramonium Seed, flower, leaf:[17] Deliriant Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.[18][19][20] It has also been used by Sadhus of India, and the Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary).
Jurema Mimosa tenuiflora syn. Mimosa hostilis Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT and yuremamine Psychedelic Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil.[21][22]
Labrador tea Rhododendron spp. Leaf: Ledol, some grayanotoxins Deliriant Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals.[23]
Mad honey Rhododendron ponticum Nectar: Grayanotoxins Deliriant In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties.[24][25]
Mexican morning glory Ipomoea tricolor Seed: Ergoline derivatives[26]

(LSA disputed)

 Psychedelic Zapotecs[27]
Beach moonflower Ipomoea violacea Seed: Ergoline derivatives[28] (LSA disputed) Psychedelic Mazatec[13]
Nyakwána Virola elongata Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as an entheogen known as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of 5-MeO-DMT and DMT.[29]
Peruvian torch cactus Echinopsis peruviana Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru.
Peyote Lophophora williamsii Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic Native American Church is known as peyotism.[30][31] Also used in the Oshara tradition.
Red ucuuba Virola sebifera Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used by shamans of the indigenous people of Venezuela in cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts.[32]
Salvia Salvia divinorum Leaf: Salvinorin A and other salvinorins Psychedelic Mazatec[33]
San Pedro cactus Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi (syn. Echinopsis pachanoi) Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[34] DMT Psychedelic There have been reports of active use of vilca by Wichi shamans, under the name hatáj.[35]
Yopo Anadenanthera peregrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4% bufotenin.[34] DMT Psychedelic Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported.[36]

Chemicals

Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like 4-AcO-DMT are thought to be prodrugs that metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While synthetic DMT and mescaline are reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolated THC produces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol. A pharmaceutical version of the entheogenic brew ayahuasca is called Pharmahuasca.

Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
2C-B 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine Psychedelic 2C-B is used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".[37][38][39]
4-Hydroxy-5-methoxydimethyltryptamine (psilomethoxin) 4-Hydroxy-5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine Psychedelic Psilomethoxin is used as a religious sacrament by the Church of Psilomethoxin.[40]
5-MeO-DMT 2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine Psychedelic See species
Bufotenin 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol Psychedelic See species
DMT 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine Psychedelic See species
DPT N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine Psychedelic DPT is used as a religious sacrament by the Temple of the True Inner Light who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God.[41]
Harmaline 7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole Psychedelic See Peganum harmala
Ibogaine 12-Methoxyibogamine Psychedelic See Tabernanthe iboga
LSA (8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide Psychedelic See species
LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Used by League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD), and the Neo-American Church.
MDMA (RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine Entactogen Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.[42]
Muscimol 5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol Deliriant See Amanita spp.
Psilocybin [3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate Psychedelic (See also Psilocybe spp) Prodrug for Psilocin. The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by Albert Hofmann.[43]
Salvinorin A methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate Psychedelic See Salvia divinorum

Prodrugs

Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
1A-LSD (6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) for LSD
1P-LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) for LSD. In tests on mice 1cP-LSD was found to be an active psychedelic with similar potency to 1P-LSD.[44]
4-AcO-DMT 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate Psychedelic Prodrug for psilocin (found in psilocybin mushroom, see also psilocybin)

This page lists non-psychedelic psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.

Non-psychedelic substances used in rituals

This is a list of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified as hard drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Kambo (or sapo) Phyllomedusa bicolor Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin).[45][46][47] Depressant Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment.[48][49][50]

Plant

The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example, kava roots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death.[51]

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species Alcohol Depressant During the Jewish holiday of Purim, Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired.[52][53]
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Leaf: up to 9% nicotine.[54] MAOI beta-carbolines. Stimulant Mapacho (South America)[55] and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam). Nicotiana rustica is used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros.[56] Nicotiana rustica is used—as incense–in association with Ayahuasca ritual in some parts of the Amazon, while Nicotiana tabacum juice is sometimes a vernacular added ingredient.[57]
Blue water lily Nymphaea caerulea Flower: Aporphine, and nuciferine Depressant Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians.[58]
Chili pepper Capsicum spp. Fruit: Capsaicin Deliriant "While the Inca may have recognized chili's potent spiritual medicine, they weren't the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind."[59]
Coca, coca tea Erythroxylaceae spp. Leaf: 0.3-1.5% cocaine[60] Stimulant Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present. In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.[61]
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec).[62]
Coffee Coffea spp. Seed:[63] caffeine 0.06-3.2% Stimulant The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries.[64] The Sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God.[65]
Corn beer Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented Alcohol Depressant The corn beer Chicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies.[66]

Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage.[67]

Ilex guayusa Ilex guayusa Leaves: 1.73–3.48 % caffeine.[68] Theanine Stimulant A ritual use by the Kichua people involves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions.[69] Ilex guayusa is used in ayahuasca admixtures for its healing powers.[70]
Kava Piper methysticum Root:[71] 3-20% kavalactones Depressant Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava.
Khat Catha edulis Leaf:[72] cathine up to 14% [73][74] Stimulant For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.[75]
Kratom Mitragyna speciosa Leaves: Opioids (1–6% mitragynine, 0.01–0.04% 7-hydroxymitragynine[76]) Depressant In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.)[77]
Opium, Opium poppy Papaver somniferum Latex exudate:[78] morphine 0.3–25% and codeine 0.5–4% Depressant From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power.[79] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache.[80] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.[81][82] The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.[80] The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes.[83]</ref>
Pituri Duboisia hopwoodii, Duboisia myoporoides, Nicotiana spp. Nicotine, tropane alkaloids A stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) chewed by Aboriginal Australians. Some authors use the term to refer only to the plant Duboisia hopwoodii and its leaves and any chewing mixture containing its leaves.[84]
Rakia Collective term for fruit spirits (or fruit brandy) popular in the Balkans. Alcohol Depressant Although wine is the essential part of the Eucharist rite in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans.
Tea Camellia sinensis Leaf:[85]
Stimulant Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of "mindful alertness" during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries.
Wine Yeast byproduct: Grape (Vitis spp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians[86] and the Greeks, specifically in worship of Dionysus.
Beer Yeast byproduct: Barley ( Liquid Gold spp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant

Chemicals

Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
Alcohol Ethanol Depressant See Vitis spp.
Caffeine 1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione Stimulant See Coffea
Cathine (1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol Stimulant See Catha edulis
Cocaine Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate Stimulant Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).[87] However, other sources claim that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical for substance addiction withdrawal syndromes.[88][89][90][91] See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.
Codeine (5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol Depressant Prodrug for morphine
Kavalactones Depressant See Piper methysticum
Morphine (4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol Depressant See Papaver somniferum

Poly drug use of non-psychedelics and entheogens used in rituals

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol + vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[34] DMT Psychedelic + depressant Between 2013 and 2017, archaeological excavations at the Quilcapampa site in southern Peru, found that the Wari used seeds from the vilca tree and combined the hallucinogenic drug with chicha, or beer made from the molle tree.[92]
Psilocybin mushroom + cocoa Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Aztecs combined cacao with psilocybin mushrooms to yield a polysubstance combination

Non-psychoactive usage

Salvia apiana and Bursera fagaroides, listed below, do not contain any psychoactive substances at all, they are solely used for ritualistic purposes. Although also shown in the table below, Aztec tobacco, morning glories, and Syrian rue (also listed in the § Psychoactive use table), and cacao beans are (mildly) psychoactive when consumed.

Flora

Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Incense
Cacao bean Theobroma cacao Ritual offering
Copal Bursera fagaroides Incense
Morning glory T. corymbosa, and Ipomoea violacea Numerology "indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels for T. corymbosa, and I. violacea which are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis."[93]
Syrian rue Peganum harmala Incense "In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers"[94][95]
White Sage Salvia apiana Incense

See also

References

  1. ↑ "BUFO ALVARIUS, SONORAN DESERT TOAD (5MeoDMT): The experience of cosmic unity, which gives an enlightening vision of oneself and of existence". Alberto José Varela. 12 September 2016.
  2. ↑ Backshall, Steve (6 January 2008). "Bitten by the Amazon". London: The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
  3. ↑ Schmull, Michaela; Dal-Forno, Manuela; Lücking, Robert; Cao, Shugeng; Clardy, Jon; Lawrey, James D. (2014). "Dictyonema huaorani (Agaricales: Hygrophoraceae), a new lichenized basidiomycete from Amazonian Ecuador with presumed hallucinogenic properties". The Bryologist. 117 (4): 386–394. doi:10.1639/0007-2745-117.4.386. S2CID 84084929.
  4. ↑ Nyberg, H. (1992). "Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures". Karstenia. 32 (71–80): 71–80. doi:10.29203/ka.1992.294.
  5. ↑ Wasson, R. Gordon (1980). The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 5–10. ISBN 978-0-07-068442-3.
  6. ↑ "Entada rheedii - African Dream Herb", www.entheology.org
  7. ↑ J. F. Sobiecki (2008). "A review of plants used in divination in southern Africa and their psychoactive effects" (PDF). Southern African Humanities. 20: 333–351. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  8. ↑ Harner, Michael (1980). The Way of the Shaman. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250373-2.
  9. ↑ Callaway, JC; Brito, GS; Neves, ES (2005). "Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 37 (2): 145–150. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795. PMID 16149327. S2CID 30736017.
  10. ↑ Glasby, J. S. (1991-07-02). Directory Of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-48987-1. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  11. ↑ "Chemical Information". sun.ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on 2004-11-21. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  12. ↑ "Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa)". Giftpflanzen Compendium (in German). [Poisonous Plants Compendium]. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
  13. 1 2 "The Leaves of the Shepherdess". Sage Wisdom.
  14. ↑ Chao JM, Der Marderosian AH (1973). "Ergoline alkaloidal constituents of Hawaiian baby wood rose, Argyreia nervosa (Burmf) Bojer". J. Pharm. Sci. 62 (4): 588–591. doi:10.1002/jps.2600620409. PMID 4698977.
  15. ↑ "Entheology.org - Preserving Ancient Knowledge". www.entheology.org.
  16. ↑ "Erowid Online Books: "TIHKAL" - #25 IBOGAINE". Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  17. ↑ Duke, "Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)".
  18. ↑ Biaggioni, Italo; et al. (2011). Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System. Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-12-386525-0.
  19. ↑ Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-19-537001-0.
  20. ↑ Davis, Wade (1997). The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic. Simon & Schuster. p. . ISBN 978-0-684-83929-5.
  21. ↑ "Jurema Ritual in Northern Brazil". www.maps.org.
  22. ↑ Rätsch 2005, p. 1376.
  23. ↑ Andrews, Steve; Rindsberg, Katrina (April 2001). Herbs of the Northern Shaman: A Guide to Mind-Altering Plants of the Northern Hemisphere. Loompanics Unlimited. ISBN 978-1-55950-211-5. OCLC 780276732.
  24. ↑ Treza, Raphael (2011). "Hallucinogen honey hunters". topdocumentaryfilms.com. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  25. ↑ Jansen, Suze A.; Kleerekooper, Iris; Hofman, Zonne L. M.; Kappen, Isabelle F. P. M.; Stary-Weinzinger, Anna; van der Heyden, Marcel A. G. (September 2012). "Grayanotoxin Poisoning: 'Mad Honey Disease' and Beyond". Cardiovascular Toxicology. 12 (3): 208–215. doi:10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMC 3404272.
  26. ↑ Duke, "Ipomoea".
  27. ↑ Carod-Artal, FJ (2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurologia. 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2011.07.003. PMID 21893367.
  28. ↑ Duke, Ipomoea violacea (Convolvulaceae).
  29. ↑ Agurell, S; Holmstedt, B; Lindgren, JE; Schultes, RE (1969). "Alkaloids in certain species of Virola and other South American plants of ethnopharmacologic interest". Acta Chemica Scandinavica. 23 (3): 903–16. doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.23-0903. PMID 5806312.
  30. ↑ Catherine Beyer. "Peyote and the Native American Church". About.com Religion & Spirituality. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  31. ↑ Shield, James Mark (2007) [Revised from original 1990 version], Christ and the Cactus: A Study of Peyotism among the Canadian Sioux (PDF), Bucknell University, archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-20, retrieved 2020-03-15
  32. ↑ Rätsch 2005, p. 1285.
  33. ↑ Valdés, Leander J. III; Díaz, JoséLuis; Paul, Ara G. (December 2002). "Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora (Salvia divinorum, Epling AND Játiva-M.)". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 83 (3): 287–312. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(83)90004-1. hdl:2027.42/25229.
  34. 1 2 3 Ott, Jonathan (2001). "Pharmañopo-psychonautics: Human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 33 (3): 273–281. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. PMID 11718320. S2CID 5877023.
  35. ↑ Ott, Jonathan (2001). Shamanic Snuffs or Enthogenic Errhines. EthnoBotanica. p. 90. ISBN 1-888755-02-4.
  36. ↑ Ogalde, Juan P.; Bernardo T. Arriaza; Elia C. Soto (2010). "Uso de plantas psicoactivas en el north de Chile: evidencia química del consumo de ayahuasca durante el periodo medio (500-1000 d.C.)". Latin American Antiquity (in Spanish). 21 (4): 441–450. doi:10.7183/1045-6635.21.4.441. S2CID 163915994.
  37. ↑ "2CB chosen over traditional entheogen's by South African healers". Tacethno.com. 2008-03-27. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
  38. ↑ The Nexus Factor - An Introduction to 2C-B Erowid
  39. ↑ Ubulawu Nomathotholo Pack Photo by Erowid. © 2002 Erowid.org
  40. ↑ "Church of Psilomethoxin".
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  46. ↑ Melchiorri P, Negri L (1996). "The dermorphin peptide family". General Pharmacology: The Vascular System. 27 (7): 1099–1107. doi:10.1016/0306-3623(95)02149-3. PMID 8981054.
  47. ↑ Amiche, M.; Delfour, A.; Nicolas, P. (1998). "Opioid peptides from frog skin". In Pierre Jolles (ed.). d-Amino Acids in Sequences of Secreted Peptides of Multicellular Organisms. Experientia Supplementum (EXS). Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser Basel. pp. 57–71. doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8837-0_4. ISBN 978-3-0348-9794-5. ISSN 1664-431X. PMID 9949868. Link to Springer (publisher) page for Experientia Supplementum (EXS) series
  48. ↑ Leban, V; Kozelk, G; Brvar, M (2016). "The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after giant leaf frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) venom exposure". Toxicon. 120: 107–109. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.07.007. PMID 27421671.
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  60. ↑ "Illicit Production of Cocaine – [www.rhodium.ws]". Erowid.org. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
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Works cited

Databases

  • "Search the databases", Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
    • USDA online database compiled from: Duke, James A. (1992). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (First ed.). Boca Raton, United States: CRC Press. ISBN 9780849336720. OCLC 25874249.

Further reading

  • Duke, James A. (2001). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL, United States: CRC Press. ISBN 9780849338656.
  • Ott, Jonathan (1996). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history. Kennewick, US: Natural Products Co. ISBN 978-0-9614234-8-3.
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1980). The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-0-07-068442-3.

    Chocolate was drunk cold and mixed with aromatic flower petals of which the overwhelming favorite was cacahua-xochitl. Indeed it seems as though these particular petals were indispensable. Our poets' 'chocolate flowers' had nothing to do botanically with Theobroma cacao, but everything to do with the chocolate beverage as drunk by the aristocrats ... my belief that the flowers of the Nahuatl poets come from their exclusive privilege for indulging in the flower petals of the cacahuaxochitl. Here we are dealing with a tree that grows in Veracruz and Oaxaca, known today to botanists as Quararibea funebris. Whether the petals of these flowers were entheogens such as the mushroom and morning-glory seeds, I do not know, but that the lords of Nahua so regarded them seems virtually certain.

    — Wasson (1980). "A Velada in Huautla". p. 98
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1968). Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Part 2 by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Wood, Stephanie; Eugene, Ore, eds. (2000–2023). "Nahuatl Dictionary". cacahuaxochitl. With support from the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Wired Humanities Projects, College of Education, University of Oregon.
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