Margaret Hamilton
Hamilton in 1995
Born
Margaret Elaine Heafield

(1936-08-17) August 17, 1936
Paoli, Indiana, U.S.
EducationUniversity of Michigan
Earlham College (BA)
OccupationSoftware engineer
Spouses
  • James Cox Hamilton
    ​
    ​
    (m. 1958; div. 1967)​
  • Dan Lickly
    ​
    (m. 1969)​
Children1
RelativesJames Cox Chambers (former son-in-law)
AwardsPresidential Medal of Freedom

Margaret Elaine Hamilton (née Heafield; born August 17, 1936) is an American computer scientist, systems engineer, and business owner. She was director of the Software Engineering Division of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, which developed on-board flight software for NASA's Apollo program. She later founded two software companies—Higher Order Software in 1976 and Hamilton Technologies in 1986, both in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Hamilton has published more than 130 papers, proceedings, and reports, about sixty projects, and six major programs. She invented the term "software engineering",[1] stating "I began to use the term 'software engineering' to distinguish it from hardware and other kinds of engineering, yet treat each type of engineering as part of the overall systems engineering process."[2][3][4]

On November 22, 2016, Hamilton received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from president Barack Obama for her work leading to the development of on-board flight software for NASA's Apollo Moon missions.[5]

Early life and education

Margaret Elaine Heafield was born August 17, 1936, in Paoli, Indiana,[6] to Kenneth Heafield and Ruth Esther Heafield (née Partington).[7][8] The family later moved to Michigan,[9] where Margaret graduated from Hancock High School in 1954.[7] She studied mathematics at the University of Michigan in 1955 before transferring to Earlham College, where her mother had been a student;[10][11] she earned a BA in mathematics with a minor in philosophy in 1958.[10][12] She cites Florence Long, the head of the math department at Earlham, as helping with her desire to pursue abstract mathematics and become a mathematics professor.[13] She says her poet father and headmaster grandfather inspired her to include a minor in philosophy in her studies.[14]

Career

In Boston, Hamilton initially intended to enroll in graduate study in abstract mathematics at Brandeis University.[7] However, in mid-1959, Hamilton began working for Edward Norton Lorenz, in the meteorology department at MIT.[15] She developed software for predicting weather, programming on the LGP-30 and the PDP-1 computers at Marvin Minsky's Project MAC.[16][17][18] Her work contributed to Lorenz's publications on chaos theory. At the time, computer science and software engineering were not yet established disciplines; instead, programmers learned on the job with hands-on experience.[19] She moved on to another project in the summer of 1961, and hired and trained Ellen Fetter as her replacement.[15]

SAGE Project

From 1961 to 1963, Hamilton worked on the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) Project at the MIT Lincoln Lab,[17] where she was one of the programmers who wrote software for the prototype AN/FSQ-7 computer (the XD-1), used by the U.S. Air Force to search for possibly unfriendly aircraft.[6] She also wrote software for a satellite tracking project at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories.[17] The SAGE Project was an extension of Project Whirlwind, started by MIT to create a computer system that could predict weather systems and track their movements using simulators. SAGE was soon developed for military use in anti-aircraft air defense. Hamilton said:

What they used to do when you came into this organization as a beginner, was to assign you this program which nobody was able to ever figure out or get to run. When I was the beginner they gave it to me as well. And what had happened was it was tricky programming, and the person who wrote it took delight in the fact that all of his comments were in Greek and Latin. So I was assigned this program and I actually got it to work. It even printed out its answers in Latin and Greek. I was the first one to get it to work.[20]

It was her efforts on this project that made her a candidate for the position at NASA as the lead developer for Apollo flight software.[7]

MIT Instrumentation Laboratory and the Apollo Guidance Computer

Hamilton in 1969, standing next to listings of the software she and her MIT team produced for the Apollo project[21]
Hamilton during her time as lead Apollo flight software designer[22]

Hamilton learned of the Apollo project in 1965 and wanted to get involved due to it being "very exciting" as a Moon program.[23] She joined the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, which developed the Apollo Guidance Computer for the Apollo lunar exploration program. Hamilton was the first programmer hired for the Apollo project at MIT and the first female programmer in the project,[23][24] and later became Director of the Software Engineering Division.[25] She was responsible for the team writing and testing all on board in flight software for the Apollo spacecraft's Command and Lunar Module and for the subsequent Skylab space station.[26][27][19] Another part of her team designed and developed the systems software.[28] This included error detection and recovery software such as restarts and the Display Interface Routines (also known as the Priority Displays), which Hamilton designed and developed.[29] She worked to gain hands-on experience during a time when computer science courses were uncommon and software engineering courses did not exist.[19]

Her areas of expertise include: systems design and software development, enterprise and process modeling, development paradigm, formal systems modeling languages, system-oriented objects for systems modeling and development, automated life-cycle environments, methods for maximizing software reliability and reuse, domain analysis, correctness by built-in language properties, open-architecture techniques for robust systems, full life-cycle automation, quality assurance, seamless integration, error detection and recovery techniques, human-machine interface systems, operating systems, end-to-end testing techniques, and life-cycle management techniques.[19][21] These techniques are intended to make code more reliable because they help programmers identify and fix errors sooner in the development process.

Apollo 11 landing

In one of the critical moments of the Apollo 11 mission, the Apollo Guidance Computer, together with the on-board flight software, averted an abort of the landing on the Moon. Three minutes before the lunar lander reached the Moon's surface, several computer alarms were triggered. According to software engineer Robert Wills, Buzz Aldrin entered the codes to request that the computer display altitude and other data on the computer’s screen. The system was designed to support seven simultaneous programs running, but Aldrin’s request was the eighth. This action was something he requested many times whilst working in the simulator. The result was a series of unexpected error codes during the live descent. The on-board flight software captured these alarms with the "never supposed to happen displays" interrupting the astronauts with priority alarm displays.[30] Hamilton had prepared for just this situation years before:

There was one other failsafe that Hamilton likes to remember. Her "priority display" innovation had created a knock-on risk that astronaut and computer would slip out of synch just when it mattered most. As the alarms went off and priority displays replaced normal ones, the actual switchover to new programmes behind the screens was happening "a step slower" than it would today.

Hamilton had thought long and hard about this. It meant that if Aldrin, say, hit a button on the priority display too quickly, he might still get a "normal" response. Her solution: when you see a priority display, first count to five.[31]

By some accounts, the astronauts had inadvertently left the rendezvous radar switch on, causing these alarms to be triggered (the claim that the radar was left on inadvertently by the astronauts is disputed by Robert Wills with the National Museum of Computing[32]). The computer was overloaded with interrupts caused by incorrectly phased power supplied to the lander's rendezvous radar.[33][34][35] The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.[36] The asynchronous executive designed by J. Halcombe Laning[37][33][38] was used by Hamilton's team to develop asynchronous flight software:

Because of the flight software's system-software's error detection and recovery techniques that included its system-wide "kill and recompute" from a "safe place" restart approach to its snapshot and rollback techniques, the Display Interface Routines (AKA the priority displays) together with its man-in-the-loop capabilities were able to be created in order to have the capability to interrupt the astronauts' normal mission displays with priority displays of critical alarms in case of an emergency. This depended on our assigning a unique priority to every process in the software in order to ensure that all of its events would take place in the correct order and at the right time relative to everything else that was going on.[39]

Hamilton's priority alarm displays interrupted the astronauts' normal displays to warn them that there was an emergency "giving the astronauts a go/no go decision (to land or not to land)".[40] Jack Garman, a NASA computer engineer in mission control, recognized the meaning of the errors that were presented to the astronauts by the priority displays and shouted, "Go, go!" and they continued.[41] Paul Curto, senior technologist who nominated Hamilton for a NASA Space Act Award, called Hamilton's work "the foundation for ultra-reliable software design".[28]

Hamilton later wrote of the incident:

The computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it should be performing. It then sent out an alarm, which meant to the astronaut, 'I'm overloaded with more tasks than I should be doing at this time and I'm going to keep only the more important tasks'; i.e., the ones needed for landing ... Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones ... If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was.

— Letter from Margaret H. Hamilton, Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming MIT Draper Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts, titled "Computer Got Loaded", published in Datamation, March 1, 1971[42]

Businesses

In 1976, Hamilton co-founded with Saydean Zeldin a company called Higher Order Software (HOS)[43] to further develop ideas about error prevention and fault tolerance emerging from their experience at MIT working on the Apollo program.[44][45] They created a product called USE.IT, based on the HOS methodology they developed at MIT.[46][47][48] It was successfully used in numerous government programs[49][50] including a project to formalize and implement C-IDEF, an automated version of IDEF, a modeling language developed by the U.S. Air Force in the Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM) project.[51] In 1980, British-Israeli computer scientist David Harel published a proposal for a structured programming language derived from HOS from the viewpoint of and/or subgoals.[52] Others have used HOS to formalize the semantics of linguistic quantifiers,[53] and to formalize the design of reliable real-time embedded systems.[54]

Hamilton was the CEO of HOS through 1984[44] and left the company in 1985. In March 1986, she founded Hamilton Technologies, Inc. in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The company was developed around the Universal Systems Language (USL) and its associated automated environment, the 001 Tool Suite, based on her paradigm of development before the fact for systems design and software development.[35][55][56]

Legacy

Official photo for NASA, 1989

Hamilton has been credited with naming the discipline of "software engineering".[57][58][59] Hamilton details how she came to make up the term "software engineering":

When I first came up with the term, no one had heard of it before, at least in our world. It was an ongoing joke for a long time. They liked to kid me about my radical ideas. It was a memorable day when one of the most respected hardware gurus explained to everyone in a meeting that he agreed with me that the process of building software should also be considered an engineering discipline, just like with hardware. Not because of his acceptance of the new 'term' per se, but because we had earned his and the acceptance of the others in the room as being in an engineering field in its own right.[39]

When Hamilton started using the term "software engineering" during the early Apollo missions,[60] software development was not taken seriously compared to other engineering,[61] nor was it regarded as a science. Hamilton was concerned with legitimizing software development as an engineering discipline.[62] Over time the term "software engineering" gained the same respect as any other technical discipline.[58][63] The IEEE Software September/October 2018 issue celebrates the 50th anniversary of software engineering.[64] Hamilton talks about "Errors" and how they influenced her work related to software engineering and how her language, USL, could be used to prevent the majority of "Errors" in a system.[65] Writing in Wired, Robert McMillan noted: "At MIT she assisted in the creation of the core principles in computer programming as she worked with her colleagues in writing code for the world's first portable computer".[66] Hamilton's innovations go beyond the feats of playing an important role in getting humans to the Moon. According to Wired's Karen Tegan Padir: "She, along with that other early programming pioneer, COBOL inventor Grace Hopper, also deserve tremendous credit for helping to open the door for more women to enter and succeed in STEM fields like software."[67][68]

In 2019, to celebrate 50 years to the Apollo landing, Google decided to make a tribute to Hamilton. The mirrors at the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility were configured to create a picture of Hamilton and the Apollo 11 by moonlight.[69]

Awards

Barack Obama awards the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Hamilton in 2016
Honoris Causa ceremony of Margaret Hamilton, 2018

Publications

  • Hamilton, M.; Zeldin, S. (March 1976). "Higher Order Software—A Methodology for Defining Software". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. SE-2 (1): 9–32. doi:10.1109/TSE.1976.233798. S2CID 7799553.
  • Hamilton, M.; Zeldin, S. (January 1, 1979). "The relationship between design and verification". Journal of Systems and Software. 1: 29–56. doi:10.1016/0164-1212(79)90004-9.
  • Hamilton, M. (April 1994). "Inside Development Before the Fact". (Cover story). Special Editorial Supplement. 8ES-24ES. Electronic Design.
  • Hamilton, M. (June 1994). "001: A Full Life Cycle Systems Engineering and Software Development Environment". (Cover story). Special Editorial Supplement. 22ES-30ES. Electronic Design.
  • Hamilton, M.; Hackler, W. R. (2004). "Deeply Integrated Guidance Navigation Unit (DI-GNU) Common Software Architecture Principles". (Revised December 29, 2004). DAAAE30-02-D-1020 and DAAB07-98-D-H502/0180, Picatinny Arsenal, NJ, 2003–2004.
  • Hamilton, M.; Hackler, W. R. (2007). "Universal Systems Language for Preventative Systems Engineering", Proc. 5th Ann. Conf. Systems Eng. Res. (CSER), Stevens Institute of Technology, Mar. 2007, paper #36.
  • Hamilton, Margaret H.; Hackler, William R. (2007). "8.3.2 A Formal Universal Systems Semantics for SysML". INCOSE International Symposium. Wiley. 17 (1): 1333–1357. doi:10.1002/j.2334-5837.2007.tb02952.x. ISSN 2334-5837. S2CID 57214708.
  • Hamilton, Margaret H.; Hackler, William R. (2008). "Universal Systems Language: Lessons Learned from Apollo". Computer. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 41 (12): 34–43. doi:10.1109/mc.2008.541. ISSN 0018-9162.
  • Hamilton, M. H. (September 2018). "What the Errors Tell Us". IEEE Software. 35 (5): 32–37. doi:10.1109/MS.2018.290110447. S2CID 52896962.

Personal life

Hamilton has a sister Kathryn.[82]

She met her first husband, James Cox Hamilton,[83] in the mid-1950s while attending college. They were married on June 15, 1958, the summer after she graduated from Earlham.[84][83] She briefly taught high school mathematics and French at a public school in Boston, Indiana.[84][17] The couple then moved to Boston, Massachusetts,[17] where they had a daughter, Lauren, born on November 10, 1959.[7] They divorced in 1967 and Margaret married Dan Lickly two years later.[83][85]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Johnson, Jordan (2017). Sputnik and the Space Race. Cavendish Square. p. 60. ISBN 9781502627223. With her colleagues, she developed the building blocks for modern 'software engineering,' a term Hamilton coined.
  2. ↑ Cameron, Lori (October 5, 2018). "First Software Engineer". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved March 25, 2023.
  3. ↑ Thereon, Bradley, ed. (2003). "The NASA Heritage Of Creativity" (PDF). 2003 Annual Report of the NASA Inventions & Contributions Board. NASA. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 29, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
  4. ↑ Brock, David C.; Hamilton, Margaret H. (April 13, 2017). "Hamilton, Margaret oral history". computerhistory.org. Computer History Museum. 102738243. Archived from the original on November 14, 2023. Retrieved March 25, 2023.
  5. 1 2 "President Obama Names Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom". whitehouse.gov. November 16, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
  6. 1 2 Spicer, Dan (April 27, 2017). "2017 CHM Fellow Margaret Hamilton". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Welch, Rosanne; Lamphier, Peg A., eds. (February 28, 2019). Technical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Vol. 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-61069-094-2.
  8. ↑ "Ruth Esther Heafield". Wujek-Calcaterra & Sons – Tributes.com. Archived from the original on December 16, 2014. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
  9. ↑ "Commings, Goings and Events". The Evening News. Sault Ste Marie, Michigan. December 10, 1952.
  10. 1 2 "Pioneers in Computer Science". Utah State University. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
  11. ↑ "Former Earlham Student Had Role in Moon Flight". Palladium-Item. Richmond, Indiana. August 15, 1969 – via Newspapers.com.
  12. 1 2 3 "2009 Outstanding Alumni and Distinguished Service Awards". Earlham College. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
  13. ↑ "The Woman Who Taught Me – Margaret Hamilton MAKERS Moment". Makers.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
  14. ↑ "Margaret Hamilton: The Untold Story of the Woman Who Took Us to the Moon". Futurism. July 20, 2016. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2016.
  15. 1 2 Sokol, Joshua (May 20, 2019). "The Hidden Heroines of Chaos". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
  16. ↑ Lorenz, Edward (March 1962). "The statistical prediction of solutions of dynamic equations" (PDF). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Numerical Weather Prediction in Tokyo, November 7–13, 1960. The Meteorological Society of Japan: 629–635. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 23, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2019.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011). American Women of Science Since 1900. ABC-CLIO. pp. 480–82. ISBN 978-1-59884-158-9. Archived from the original on March 17, 2015. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  18. ↑ Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Doubleday. pp. Chapter 5:The Midnight Computer Wiring Society. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.
  19. 1 2 3 4 "About Margaret Hamilton". klabs.org. Archived from the original on December 6, 2010. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
  20. ↑ "AGC – Conference 1: Margaret Hamilton's introduction". authors.library.caltech.edu. Archived from the original on January 31, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
  21. 1 2 Weinstock, Maia (August 17, 2016). "Scene at MIT: Margaret Hamilton's Apollo code". MIT News. Archived from the original on August 18, 2016. Retrieved August 17, 2016.
  22. ↑ Rayl, A.J.S (October 16, 2006). "NASA Engineers and Scientists-Transforming Dreams Into Reality". 50th Magazine. NASA.
  23. 1 2 Sheehan, Alan H. (November 1, 1972). "Putting 'Eagle' on course". The Boston Globe. p. 24. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
  24. ↑ Magazine, Smithsonian; George, Alice. "Margaret Hamilton Led the NASA Software Team That Landed Astronauts on the Moon". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  25. 1 2 "Margaret Hamilton 2017 Fellow". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
  26. ↑ "NASA Engineers and Scientists-Transforming Dreams Into Reality". NASA. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
  27. ↑ Hoag, David (September 1976). The History of Apollo On-board Guidance, Navigation, and Control (PDF) (Report). Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 5, 2016. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
  28. 1 2 3 Michael Braukus NASA News "NASA Honors Apollo Engineer" Archived November 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine (September 3, 2003)
  29. ↑ Green, Alan (June 1967). Keyboard and Display Program and Operation (PDF) (Report). Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2016. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
  30. ↑ "Moon landing memories:'Apollo 11 changed civilisation and I had a part in it'". The Times of London. July 15, 2019.
  31. ↑ Whittell, Giles (July 13, 2004). "First Woman". Tortoise Media.
  32. ↑ Wills, Robert (October 26, 2019). "Light-years ahead". Archived from the original on December 21, 2021 – via The National Museum of Computing.
  33. 1 2 Eyles, Don. "Tales from the Lunar Module Guidance Computer". 27th Annual Guidance and Control Conference of the American Astronautical Society. Archived from the original on July 20, 2016. Retrieved July 22, 2016 – via DonEyles.com.
  34. ↑ Blair-Smith, Hugh (November 7, 2011). "System integration issues in Apollo 11". IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine. 26 (11): 16–24. doi:10.1109/MAES.2011.6065654. S2CID 13420135.
  35. 1 2 Hamilton, Margaret; Hackler, William (December 12, 2008). "Universal Systems Language: Lessons Learned from Apollo". IEEE Computer. 41 (12): 34–43. doi:10.1109/MC.2008.541. ISSN 1558-0814. S2CID 15870726.
  36. ↑ Collins, Michael; Aldrin, Edwin E. Jr. (1975). "A Yellow Caution Light". In Cortright, Edgar M (ed.). Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. Washington, D.C.: NASA. OCLC 1623434. NASA SP-350. Archived from the original on February 19, 2008. Retrieved June 13, 2013. Chapter 11.4.
  37. ↑ Hayes, Brian (May–June 2019). "Moonshot Computing". American Scientist.
  38. ↑ Mindell, David A. (2011). Digital Apollo. MIT Press. p. 149.
  39. 1 2 Snyder, Lawrence and Henry, Ray Laura, "Fluency7 with Information Technology", Pearson, ISBN 0-13-444872-3
  40. ↑ Hamilton, Margaret (July 17, 2009). "Recalling the 'Giant Leap'". MIT News. Archived from the original on September 15, 2016. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
  41. ↑ Lickly, Dan (July 17, 2009). "Recalling the 'Giant Leap'". MIT News. Archived from the original on September 15, 2016. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
  42. ↑ Hamilton, Margaret H. (March 1, 1971). "Computer Got Loaded, letter to the editor of Datamation". Datamation (Letter). ISSN 0011-6963.
  43. ↑ Roberts, Edward B. (1991). Entrepreneurs in High Technology: Lessons from MIT and Beyond. Oxford University Press. pp. 41. ISBN 9780199762903.
  44. 1 2 "AGC Biography – Margaret Hamilton". authors.library.caltech.edu. The Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology. May 9, 2002. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
  45. ↑ Huber, Hartmut (August 1987). Higher Order Software – Evaluation and Critique (PDF) (Report). Naval Surface Warfare Center. pp. 2–1. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 7, 2016. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
  46. ↑ M. Hamilton, S. Zeldin (1976) "Higher order software—A methodology for defining software" IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, vol. SE-2, no. 1, Mar. 1976.
  47. ↑ Thompson, Arthur A.; Strickland, A. J., (1996), "Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases", McGraw-Hill Companies, ISBN 0-256-16205-0
  48. ↑ Rowena Barrett (June 1, 2004). Management, Labour Process and Software Development: Reality Bites. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-134-36117-5. Archived from the original on March 17, 2015. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  49. ↑ Hamilton, Margaret; Zeldin, Saydean (1974). "Higher order software techniques applied to a space shuttle prototype program". In Robinet, B. (ed.). Programming Symposium. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 19. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 17–32. doi:10.1007/3-540-06859-7_121. ISBN 978-3-540-37819-8.
  50. ↑ Cohen, B. (1986). The Specification of Complex Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-14400-X.
  51. ↑ Paul, Lois (October 11, 1982). "Federal User Offers Free CAD/CAM Software". Computerworld. 16 (41): 9 – via Google Books.
  52. ↑ Harel, David (January 1980). "And/Or Programs: A New Approach to Structured Programming" (PDF). ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. ACM. 2 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1145/357084.357085. ISSN 0164-0925. S2CID 966526. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 18, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2016 – via Weizmann Institute of Science.
  53. ↑ Cushing, Steven (1983). Abstract Control Structures and the Semantics of Quantifiers. EACL. Pisa, Italy. doi:10.3115/980092.980093. S2CID 10821594.
  54. ↑ Holland, Michael (June 1, 1997). A Constrained Interface Refinement Method for Embedded System Design (Report). Department of Computing, Macquarie University. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.37.7895.
  55. ↑ Krut, Robert W. (July 1993). "Overview of Hamilton Technologies, Inc. (HTI) 001" (PDF). Integrating 001 Tool Support in Feature-Oriented Domain Analysis Methodology. Software Engineering Institute of Carnegie Mellon University. pp. 13–15. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 5, 2019. Retrieved May 26, 2019 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
  56. ↑ Ouyang, Meng; Golay, Michael W. (September 1995). An Integrated Formal Approach for Developing High Quality Software for Safety-Critical Systems (Report). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. hdl:1721.1/67642. MIT-ANP-TR-035.
  57. ↑ "What to Know About the Scientist who Invented the Term "Software Engineering"". ComputingEdge. Archived from the original on November 24, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2019.
  58. 1 2 ICSE 2018. "ICSE 2018 – Plenary Sessions – Margaret Hamilton". YouTube. Archived from the original on June 3, 2018. Retrieved June 9, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  59. ↑ Rayl, A.J.S. (October 16, 2008). "NASA Engineers and Scientists – Transforming Dreams Into Reality". 50th Magazine. NASA. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010. Retrieved November 25, 2016.
  60. ↑ Rayl, A.J.S. (October 16, 2008). "NASA Engineers and Scientists-Transforming Dreams Into Reality". 50th Magazine. NASA. Archived from the original on December 23, 2014. Retrieved December 27, 2014.
  61. ↑ "Makers:Margaret Hamilton Videos". Makers.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
  62. ↑ "Margaret Hamilton: 2017 Fellow Biography". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
  63. ↑ Verne (December 25, 2014). "Margaret Hamilton, the Engineer Who Took the Apollo to the Moon". Medium. Archived from the original on April 13, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  64. ↑ Erdogmus, Hakan; Medvidovic, Nenad; Paulisch, Frances (September–October 2018). "50 Years of Software Engineering". IEEE Software. 35 (5): 20–24. doi:10.1109/MS.2018.3571240. ISSN 0740-7459.
  65. ↑ Hamilton, Margaret H. (2018). "What the Errors Tell Us". IEEE Software. 35 (5): 32–37. doi:10.1109/MS.2018.290110447. ISSN 0740-7459. S2CID 52896962.
  66. ↑ McMillan, Robert (October 13, 2015). "Her code got humans on the moon – and invented software itself". Wired. Archived from the original on October 23, 2015. Retrieved October 20, 2015.
  67. ↑ "Software — and a Woman — at the Heart of Lunar Triumph". WIRED. August 21, 2014. Archived from the original on May 5, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  68. ↑ Luke Kingma. "The Women Who Put Men on the Moon". Futurism. Archived from the original on July 23, 2016. Retrieved July 20, 2016.
  69. ↑ "A moonlit tribute to a moon landing icon". Google. July 18, 2019. Retrieved December 31, 2019.
  70. ↑ "Ada Lovelace Awards". Association for Women in Computing. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016.
  71. ↑ "NASA Honors Apollo Engineer". NASA News (Press release). September 3, 2003. Archived from the original on December 26, 2017. 'The Apollo flight software Ms. Hamilton and her team developed was truly a pioneering effort,' said NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe. 'The concepts she and her team created became the building blocks for modern "software engineering." It's an honor to recognize Ms. Hamilton for her extraordinary contributions to NASA,' he said.
  72. ↑ "Honour for software writer on Apollo moon mission". BBC News. November 23, 2016. Archived from the original on November 24, 2016. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
  73. ↑ "White House honors two of tech's female pioneers". CBS News. Archived from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
  74. ↑ Almeida, Andres (November 22, 2016). "Margaret Hamilton Awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom". NASA. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
  75. ↑ "The 2017 Fellow Award Acceptance Speech". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.
  76. ↑ Mosher, Dave (June 22, 2017). "Lego's 'Women of NASA' toy set is finally on sale — and it's already Amazon's best-selling toy". Business Insider. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
  77. ↑ "Investiture of scientist Margaret Hamilton as an honorary doctor of the UPC". Polytechnic University of Catalonia. October 18, 2018. Archived from the original on January 26, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
  78. ↑ "Margaret Hamilton Accepts 2019 Washington Award Nomination". Western Society of Engineers. February 22, 2019.
  79. ↑ "Bard College - 2019 Honorary Degree Recipients". Bard Annandale Online. Bard College. May 21, 2019.
  80. ↑ "Salute to Freedom Gala". Intrepid Museum. May 23, 2019.
  81. ↑ "Enshrinee Margaret Hamilton". nationalaviation.org. National Aviation Hall of Fame. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
  82. ↑ Onwuamaegbu, Natachi (July 20, 2019). "Margaret Hamilton's sister shares her memories as Seattle's seniors celebrate the 50th anniversary of the moon landing". The Seattle Times. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  83. 1 2 3 Stickgold, Emma (August 31, 2014). "James Cox Hamilton, at 77; lawyer was quiet warrior for First Amendment". Boston Globe. Archived from the original on December 16, 2014. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
  84. 1 2 "Wed In Earlham Meetinghouse Rite". Palladium-Item. Richmond, Indiana. July 2, 1958. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  85. ↑ Sheehan, Alan H. (November 1, 1972). "Putting Eagle on course". The Boston Globe. Boston, Massachusetts. Retrieved September 22, 2019.

Further reading

  • Steafel, Eleanor (July 20, 2019). "One woman in a room full of men". The Telegraph Magazine. London: Daily Telegraph plc. pp. 56–59, 61. OCLC 69022829.
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