Some loanwords in the variant of the Hurrian language spoken in the Mitanni kingdom, during the 2nd millennium BCE, are identifiable as originating in an Indo-Aryan language; these are considered to constitute an Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni (or in Mitanni Hurrian). The words in question are theonyms, proper names and technical terminology related to horses (hippological).[1]

It is generally believed that an Indo-Aryan-speaking people settled in upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria, and established the kingdom of Mitanni following a period of political vacuum, while also adopting the Hurrian language. The migration is considered a part of the Indo-Aryan migration.

Linguistic context

Professor Eva von Dassow concurs with the presence of Indo-Aryan terms in Mitanni vocabulary, but cautiously advises against the notion of an "Indo-Aryan takeover".[2] Michael Witzel argues for the antiquity of the Indo-Aryan words attested in the Mitanni data, since they seem to predate linguistic developments attested in the Rigveda.[3]

In a treaty between the Hittites and Mitanni (between Suppiluliuma I and Shattiwaza, c. 1380 BC), the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text (circa 1400 BC) includes technical terms such as aika (Vedic Sanskrit eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pañca, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper (Vedic Sanskrit eka, with regular contraction of /ai/ to [eː]) as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has *aiva; compare Vedic eva "only") in general.[4]

Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red) for horse colours. Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world.

The Mitanni warriors were called marya (Hurrian: maria-nnu), the term for '(young) warrior' in Sanskrit as well,[5] formed by adding the Hurrian suffix -nnu;[6] note 'mišta-nnu' (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)".[7]

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta",[8] Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear",[9] Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear",[10][11] Citrarata as Citraratha "whose chariot is shining", [12] Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra",[13] Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race prize",[14] Šubandu as Subandhu "having good relatives" (a name in Palestine[15]), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement". [16]

Attested words and comparisons

All of the following examples are from Witzel (2001).[17] For the pronunciation of the sounds transcribed from cuneiform as š and z, see Proto-Semitic language#Fricatives.

Names of people

Transcription of cuneiform Interpretation Vedic equivalent Comments
bi-ir-ya-ma-aš-da Priyamazdha Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear"; /azd(ʰ)/ to [eːd(ʰ)] is a regular development in Vedic and its descendants (Indo-Aryan in the narrow sense)
bi-ir-ya-aš-šu-wa, bi-ir-da-aš-šu-wa Priyāśva ~ Prītāśva Prītāśva "whose horse is dear"
ar-ta-aš-šu-ma-ra Artasmara Ṛtasmara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta"
ar-ta-ta-a-ma Artadhāma(n?) Ṛtadhāman "his abode is Ṛta"
tu-uš-rat-ta, tu-iš-e-rat-ta, tu-uš-e-rat-ta Tvaiša(?)ratha Tveṣáratha "whose chariot is vehement"
in-tar-ú-da, en-dar-ú-ta Indrauta Indrota "helped by Indra"; /au/ to [oː] is a regular development in Vedic; ú specifically indicates [u] as opposed to [o]

Names of deities

From treaties of Mitanni.

Transcription of cuneiform Interpretation Vedic equivalent Comments
a-ru-na, ú-ru-wa-na Varuna Varuṇa
mi-it-ra Mitra Mitra
in-tar, in-da-ra Indra Indra
na-ša-ti-ya-an-na Nasatya(-nna) Nāsatya Hurrian grammatical ending -nna
a-ak-ni-iš Āgnis Agni only attested in Hittite, which retains nominative -/s/ and lengthens stressed syllables

Horse training

From Kikkuli.

Transcription of cuneiform Interpretation Vedic equivalent Comments
a-aš-šu-uš-ša-an-ni āśva-san-ni? aśva-sana- "master horse trainer" (Kikkuli himself)
-aš-šu-wa -aśva aśva "horse"; in personal names
a-i-ka- aika- eka "1"
ti-e-ra- tera- ? tri "3"
pa-an-za- pańća- ? pañca "5"; Vedic c is not an affricate, but apparently its Mitanni equivalent was
ša-at-ta satta sapta "7"; /pt/ to /tː/ is either an innovation in Mitanni or a misinterpretation by a scribe who had Hurrian šinti "7" in mind
na-a-[w]a- nāva- nava "9"
wa-ar-ta-an-na vartan(n)a vartana round, turn

See also

References

  1. ↑ Kümmel 2022, p. 246.
  2. ↑ Dassow 2014, pp. 12–14.
  3. ↑ Witzel 2001, pp. 5 and footnote nr. 8, 36, 49, 53–55.
  4. ↑ Fournet 2010, pp. 26–40.
  5. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, p. 293.
  6. ↑ Dassow 2014, p. 27.
  7. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, Entry "mīḍha". p. 358.
  8. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, Entry "SMAR". p. 780.
  9. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, p. 182.
  10. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, Entry "priyá-". p. 189.
  11. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, Entry "medhắ-". p. 378.
  12. ↑ Mayrhofer 1992, p. 553.
  13. ↑ Mayrhofer 1992, pp. 134.
  14. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, pp. 540, 696.
  15. ↑ Mayrhofer 1998, pp. 209, 735.
  16. ↑ Mayrhofer 1992, pp. 686, 736.
  17. ↑ Witzel 2001, pp. 1–115.

Sources

  • Dassow, Eva von (2014). "Levantine Polities under Mittanian Hegemony". In Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum; Nicole Brisch & Jesper Eidem (eds.). Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 11–32. doi:10.1515/9783110266412.11. ISBN 9783110266412.
  • Fournet, Arnaud (2010). "About the Mitanni Aryan gods". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 38 (1–2): 26–40.
  • Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2022). "Indo-Iranian". In Thomas Olander (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–268. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.014. ISBN 9781108758666.
  • Mallory, J. P (1997). "Kuro-Araxes Culture". Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago–London: Fitzroy Dearborn.
  • Mayrhofer, Manfred (1982). "Welches Material aus dem Indo-arischen von Mitanni verbleibt für eine selektive Darstellung?". In E. Neu (ed.). Investigationes philologicae et comparativae: Gedenkschrift für Heinz Kronasser (in German). Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. pp. 72–90.
  • Mayrhofer, Manfred (1992). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen [Etymological Dictionary of Old Indo-Aryan] (in German). Vol. I. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. ISBN 3-533-03826-2.
  • Mayrhofer, Manfred (1998). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen (in German). Vol. II. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.
  • Mayrhofer, Manfred (2001). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen (in German). Vol. III. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.
  • Thieme, Paul (1960). "The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 80 (4): 301–17. doi:10.2307/595878. JSTOR 595878.
  • Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 7 (3): 1–93. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2001.3.830.

Further reading

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