Glacial traces

Mediterranean mountains bear no glaciers any more except small snow fields in some shaded cirques of the Taurus range. Even during the pleistocene snowlines were not much lower as in today's Alps. Glaciers were only of local significance in the Mediterranean enabling frost sensitive vegetation types to survive the climate changes of the Quaternary. Among the once glaciated Mediterranean mountains Orjen was outstanding for one of the biggest ice cap in the region. A 150 km² covered 1/3 of the area. All part above 900 m were buried under a thick sheet of ice from where several glacial tongues descended to 500 m above sea level. Traces of glacial activity are evident in any part of Orjen as in the Bijela gora plateaux. No glacial lakes survive today as they were extinguished due to the porosity of the karstified landscape. Many cirques, U-shaped valleys and moraines and jagged ridges and summits bear the evidence of the glacial erosion. In stoneage and Bronze Age humans settled in the Orjen region. This early human activity is depicted by rock paintings of deerhunt and humans in Lipci in Risan bay. A major Bronze Age excavation site is at Popovo polje to the north of Mount Orjen.

Snow lines across the Mediterranean. The upper line shows recent snowlines the bigger signifies those from the last Ice age. Mount Orjen due to heavy precipitation was in Ice age a major center of the Mediterranean local glacier formation

Karst

Karst fauna on Orjen

Mount Orjen is built up from pure Cretaceous limestone. As precipitation and temperatures are high and vegetation is abundant karstification processes are evolved. Lapies, sinkholes and caves resolve from the solution of the limestone. The solution process is the faster the more water is available for solution. Vegetation and soilformation play also a role in the process. A major disadvantage is that the water is percolating fast in the porous rocks and does not form brooks and rivers despite the heavy amounts of precipitation. An overall dryness is characteristic that is unsuitable for settling. Thus the region has been depopulated for a long time. Only during times of repression the unfavourable high mountains were mainly populated by Montenegrin tribes. During the time of the Ottoman rule from the 15th to the 19th century the high karst was acting as main shelter for the Christian population. Military campaigns of Ottomans and Austro-Hungarians faced heavy losses while both great powers underestimated the difficulties to undertake successful raids in karst areas. The Battle of Vučji Do between Montenegrins and Turks and the Krivošije uprising in 1869 showed that the Montenegrins used the natural conditions in their favour.

Karst is also a major tourist attraction as caves are frequent and peculiar geomorphological forms can be studied. Karst vegetation on the other hand is species rich and major karst areas are hot spots of biodiversity. The both famous Southeast Asian karst areas like the Guilin tower karst region in Southern China or Phuket island in Thailand and the Mediterranean dinaric karst areas with the Plitvice lakes in Croatia and the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro rival with spectacularity.

Geology

Tectonically the area of the Southern Adriatic is very active as the frequency of earthquakes indicates. As the Adriatic Plate subduces under the Dinarids, earthquakes can have devastating energy. Sometimes even tsunamis are observed. Mount Orjen is completely built of folded Cretaceous limestones which belongs to the High-Karst Zone geological unit. The High-Karst Zone has the greatest extent in the territory of Montenegro. The terrain of this geotectonic unit is mainly built up of Mesozoic (Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous) limestones and dolomites of several kilometres of thickness. This thickness is even larger, due to the reverse faulting and overthrusting and thus repeating of carbonate series. The karst of this region is characterised by all surface occurrences and all processes characteristic for holokarst such as: karst plain, polje, uvala, sinkhole, dry-, hanging-, blind- and karstified valley, lapies, canyon, shaft, cave, resurgence, vrulja, estavelle and so on. The karstification of limestones and dolomites in this area is below the base level of erosion, below the sea level and is deeper than 1,000 m. The High-Karst Zone has all the prominent characteristics of fluvial erosion (deep canyons of Komarnica and Morača rivers with their tributaries), glacial erosion (on Mount Orjen), lacustrine, sea and combined erosion.

Along the internal belt of Bay of Kotor, from Morinj, across Risan to Kotor, the High-Karst Zone is in direct contact with the sea, as the High-Karst Zone overthrusts the Pindus Cukali Zone where Mount Orjen rises from the Bay of Risan. The direct contact of the Adriatic sea and the High-Karst Zone leads to interesting hydrological phenomena. In these terrains the largest vrulja on the Adriatic coast, called Sopot, is located. The vast differences in water-yielding capacity of the constant and periodic karst springs point out to the strong karstification of High-Karst Zone limestones and dolomites on Mount Orjen. The difference between minimal and maximal water yielding capacity is over 350 m³.

Climate

Orjen is within the Mediterranean subtropical belt. While summers are hot and sunny, autumn, winter and spring are rainy seasons. It is the climate type of the Mediterranean but modifications exist in the vast region. For exymple sinkholes may create local areas with continental microclimates as is the cas with the Borovi do and Opuvani do, where frequent freeze-thaw cycles create favourable conditions for arcto-alpine and alpine biota. A peculiarity of the littoral Dinarids is the precipitation regime as Orjen receives Europe's' most heavy precipitation. Like the monsoon rain is seasonally distributed, thus November thunderstorms sometimes pour 2000 L of water in several days, while August is frequently completely dry leading to forest fires. With a maximum discharge of 200 m³/s water one of the biggest karst springs, the Sopot spring, is a remarkable indicator of this seasonality. Most of the time it is inactive but after heavy rain a remarkable waterfall appears 20 m above the Bay of Kotor.

* classification scheme after Köppen

Two wind systems are noteworthy for their ecological significance: Bora and Sirocco. Strong cold downslope winds of Bora type appear in winter and are most severe in the Bay of Risan. Gusts reach 250 km/h and can lead to a significant fall of temperatures in several hours with freezing events problematic for most of the Mediterranean cultures. Bora weather situations are frequent and sailors keep an eye on the mountains as cap clouds indicate an imminent Bora event. Sirocco is a warm humid rain and is important as it brings heavy rain. It appears throughout the year but is usually centered in autumn and spring.

* monthly and yearly precipitation ranges in Dalmatia, Herzegovina and Montenegro

Habitats

Mostly limestone rocks but also moraines and screes. Coastal cliffs are present at all parts of the Bay of Kotor. Many forest types can be seen of which Mediterranean deciduous evergreen don't play a significant role. Dinaric calcareous fir forests are found in several grooves on the Bijela gora but are difficult to reach. Bosnian pine forests are quite widespread on all major ridges. Virgin woodlands still exist, mainly Beech forests.

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  Sinkhole on Mount Orjen
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  Firs are sung in local songs
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  Pasture Pirina poljana
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  Glaciokarst features at Reovačka greda

Vegetation

• Notes:
  • The Vegetation profile on Mount Orjen shows the Mediterranean zones which vary from alpine mountain zones.
  • The few plant names are just examples of the plants belonging to the Biotope communities.^[1]
  • An example of a complete biotope plant list (Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk.): Dinaric calcareous block fir forest#Plant list
  • Genus Sesleria, belongs to subfamily Pooideae, of the true grass family Poaceae.

Vegetation profile on Orjen

Across Orjen vegetation varies with climate and altitude. While the sub-adriatic range exhibits evergreen deciduous forests, the vegetation graduates to temperate forests, conifers and tundra in the northern and upper regions. The ridges also have a variety of Mediterranean alpine vegetation – oromediterranean pastures. The typical karst country with bare limestone rochocks interspersed with parches of wood is found on lower altitudes. White Oak, Hop-hornbeam and Montpellier Maple, or the characteristic scrub of the maquis shrubland and garrigue are notable. There are stony meadows in the sunken dolina of the karst that contrast vividly with the stony slopes and rocky scrubland all round. Higher altitudes are characterised by heavy beech forest with occasional open grassy pastures. On northern branches silver fir accompanies beech. Above the beech and fir-beech forests are scattered open stands of pure Dinaric calcareous Silver Fir forests and Bosnian pine with deep-purple young cones set among stiff light-green needles. Open stony screes and rocks are exposed to the jagged ridges and summits. They are very rich in species.

Flora

Flora is of Balkan type with many Illyrian and Balkan endemics. Notable is local endemism with 10 endemics restricted to Mount Orjen.

Gallery

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  Saxifraga species
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  Variety of Martagon lily
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  Silver fir and Bosnian pine
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  Iris orjenii is endemic to altimediterrranean pastures on Orjen
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  Variety F. gracilis is common in the altimediterranean lifezone
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  Viburnum maculatum endemic snowball from Orjen
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  Very rare Paeonia daurica
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  Acer heldreichii subendemic Greek Maple
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  A fir tree in the range

Conservation

A National Park was planned for a long time on Orjen. The disintegration of Yugoslavia, civil war and standstill of tourism cancelled plans. Today plans a rejuvenated but funding maybe a problem. UNESCO declared the Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor a World Heritage site. The part of Orjen within the boundaries of this Site is namely the Krivosije plateaux. A further evaluation of the patrimony and nomination of a greater part of Orjen as National park has good reasons. Unique flora, fauna and relief certainly require a protection plan by administrative action.

People

Shepherds on Orjen. Dried mushrooms decorate the walls in this hut

Only few traditional shepherds live today on Orjen. Mostly remain on the northern side of the Bijela gora. They have their local songs describing life on the remote mountain and every year in July a great feast takes place when all the shepherds from Bijela gora come together to sing dance and eat on a pasture at Ledenik.

Livestock is mostly sheep but also horses and few cattle are held. At Orjen saddle oxen graze. In former times nomadic migration took place between the poljes and the higher regions of Orjen. The traditional housing on Orjen is the so-called Koliba. Small limestone huts with roofs build of pine bark. Only few hamlets are inhabited, mostly close to the coast. The higher up the stronger the push factors acted to leave. Tribes on Orjen were once renowned for their wildness and still people from the coast have this notion towards the mountain tribes.

Hiking

Ascend on Orjen via the Medugorje valley

Trails are maintained by the PSD Subra mountaineering association from Herceg Novi. Most trails are around the huts at Vratlo (1160 m) and Orjen ridge (1594 m). 40 km of marked trails exist in the Mount Orjen region, leading to the most attractive destinations. Marked trails start at the city bus station at Herceg Novi (30 m) and lead to the Vratlo hut (1160 m). Hiking in other more remote parts is also possible but no marcation currently exists. Visitors of Bijela gora or Dobri can use several local forest roads. sometimes shepherds can offer night accommodation.

Water is only available at some places, shepherd villagers usually use rain collectors. Most hikers tend to visit Subra (1680 m) or Veliki kabao (1895 m). Both are well marked.

Brown bears appear in the Bijela gora and should not be disturbed as the population is critically endangered.

Every year around mid May a half marathon called Orjen marathon is organised by the PSD Subra alpine organization. Guests are welcomed to take part in the traditional manifestation

Climbing

Several interesting alpine like climbing possibilities like rock climbing exist. Most remarkable is the 500 m wall of the Subra amphitheatre. In last few years the alpine – speleo section (A.S.O.S.) of PSD Subra started to climb routes on Mount Orjen. Good climbing routes are only 10 minutes walk from the Vratlo mountain hut. Other good climbing routes are in Subra's Amphitheatre and Reovacka Greda rocks. Mount Orjen gives a lot opportunities for climbing unclimbed routes with various difficulties. A training rock near to the Herceg Novi – Trebinje road called "Silobod" (250 m) is in use.

Summer activities

• Backpacking – Between late spring and early fall. All overnight trips into the back country require sufficient water supplies due to limited water sources available.
• Bicycling – Mountain biking is possible throughout Mount Orjen and local roads are well suited for cycling.
• Swimming – Orjen is located near the Bay of Kotor on the Adriatic coast.
• Orjen marathon – Annual sport event with several possible tracks, starting from the Vratlo mountain hut towards Subra (1679m) and Veliki kabao (1895m) peaks.

Winter activities

Much of Mount Orjen is inaccessible due to heavy snow in winter. However, Orjen saddle 1594 m can be reached in winter from Vrbanj.

• Skiing – the only skiing area is around Orjen saddle opens in winter. No lifts and equipment are provided at the mountain hut.
• Hunting – Hunters are generally welcome official permits are required.