Since the end of the 20th century, propaganda has evolved significantly. In the 21st century, propaganda is largely disseminated through the news, internet and on social media platforms such as Twitter.[1] Modern propaganda still utilises classic tactics such as name-calling and bandwagoning in order to sway the audience toward or against a particular belief.[1] Pieces of "traditional" propaganda are typically created and distributed by larger entities or organisations, while modern propaganda can be created and spread by vast numbers of individuals simultaneously online.[1] Modern propaganda can take many forms, ranging from memes[2] to mainstream partisan news.[3]

Middle East

Afghan War

In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics were employed to demoralise the Taliban and to win the sympathies of the Afghan population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were used to jam local radio transmissions and transmit replacement propaganda messages. Leaflets were also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for Osama bin Laden and other individuals, portraying Americans as friends of Afghanistan and emphasising various negative aspects of the Taliban. Another shows a picture of Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with the words: "We are eating frogs."

Iraq War

Both the United States and Iraq employed propaganda during the Iraq War. The United States established campaigns towards the American people on the justifications of the war while using similar tactics to bring down Saddam Hussein's government in Iraq.[4]

Iraqi propaganda

The Iraqi insurgency's plan was to gain as much support as possible by using violence as their propaganda tool.[5] Inspired by the Vietcong's tactics,[6] insurgents were using rapid movement to keep the coalition off-balance.[5] By using low-technology strategies to convey their messages, they were able to gain support.[7] Graffiti slogans were used on walls and houses praising the virtues of many group leaders while condemning the Iraqi government. Others used flyers, leaflets, articles and self-published newspapers and magazines to get the point across.[7]

Insurgents also produced CDs and DVDs and distributed them in communities that the Iraq and the US Government were trying to influence.[8] The insurgents designed advertisements that cost a fraction of what the US was spending on their ads aimed at the same people in Iraq with much more success.[8] In addition, a domestic Arabic language television station was established with the aim of informing the Iraqi public of alleged coalition propaganda efforts in the country.[6]

US propaganda in Iraq

US PSYOP pamphlet disseminated in Iraq. The pamphlet says: "This is your future, Al-Zarqawi", and shows Al-Qaeda fighter Al-Zarqawi caught in a rat trap.

To achieve their aim of a moderate, pro-western Iraq, US authorities were careful to avoid conflicts with Islamic culture that would produce passionate reactions from Iraqis, but differentiating between "good" and "bad" Islam has proved challenging for the US.[6]

The US implemented black propaganda by creating false radio personalities that would disseminate pro-American information, but supposedly run by the supporters of Saddam Hussein. One radio station used was Radio Tikrit.[6] Another example of use of black propaganda is that the United States paid Iraqis to publish articles written by US troops in their newspapers under the idea that they are unbiased and real accounts; this was brought forth by The New York Times in 2005.[9] The article stated that it was the Lincoln Group who had been hired by the US government to create the propaganda. However, their names were later cleared from any wrongdoing.[9]

The US was more successful with the Voice of America campaign, which is an old Cold War tactic that exploited people's desire for information.[6] While the information they gave out to the Iraqis was truthful, they were in a high degree of competition with the opposing forces after the censorship of the Iraqi media was lifted with the removal of Saddam from power.[10]

In November 2005, the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times alleged that the United States military had manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an effort to cast a favourable light on its actions while demoralising the insurgency. Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the program is "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by insurgents", while a spokesman for former Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The Department of Defense confirmed the existence of the program.[11][12]

Propaganda aimed at US citizens

The extent to which the US government used propaganda aimed at its own people is a matter of discussion. The book Selling Intervention & War, by Jon Western, argued that president Bush was "selling the war" to the public.[13]

President George W. Bush gave a talk at the Athena Performing Arts Centre, at Greece Athena Middle and High School, Tuesday, May 24, 2005, in Rochester, New York. About halfway through the event, Bush said: "See, in my line of work, you got to keep repeating things over and over, and over again, for the truth to sink in, to kind of catapult the propaganda."[14]

While the United States' official stance was to remove Saddam Hussein's power in Iraq with allegations that his government held weapons of mass destruction or was related to Osama bin Laden,[15] over time the Iraq war as a whole has been seen in a negative light.[16] Video and picture coverage in the news has shown images of torture being done under the Iraqi Government.[15]

The U.S. Military has provided millions in funding to professional sports organizations in exchange for pro-military messaging, such as a "salute" to active duty soldiers and war veterans.[17][18]

North Korea

North Koreans touring the Museum of American War Atrocities.

Every year, several cartoons (called geurim-chaek in North Korea) are released, many of which are smuggled across the Chinese border and, sometimes, end up in university libraries in the United States. The books are designed to instill the Juche philosophy of Kim Il Sung (the "father" of North Korea)—radical self-reliance of the state. The plots mostly feature scheming capitalists from the United States and Japan who create dilemmas for naïve North Korean characters.

DPRK textbooks claim that US missionaries came to the Korean Peninsula and committed barbarous acts against Korean children, including injecting dangerous liquids into the children and writing the word "THIEF" on the forehead of any child who stole an apple for missionary-owned orchards in Korea.[19]

Example of North Korean propaganda cartoon. "North Korea - Propaganda poster" by Roman Harak is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Past leader of North Korea such as Kim Il-Sung never considered tourism as an important priority and only promoted it through some brochures and magazines focusing on scenery and culture. Kim Jong Il made an effort to incorporate tourism as a larger priority for financial purposes, allowing U.S citizens starting in 2010.[20] In the time of the leader Kim Jun un, tourism has become a "national development priority" and a means of propaganda in order to shift the countries negative image. Classified as "heritage tourism," the goal is to promote the North Korean ways such as communism and authoritarian government regimes.[20] Though past leaderships have focused on promoting successful rulership and power through tourism, Kim Jong-Un has focused more on changing the image of the country to encourage more tourism in profitable numbers. The country has been known for things like poverty, abusiveness, strict government and isolation from the outside world.[20] To try and combat this image, they have made use of the internet and social media for tour companies to promote travel blogs and photos to give themselves a more "human face" that is appealing to western tourists. There are now over 40 international tour companies to bring in foreigners.[20] Social media blogs and posts have assisted the country in changing their image with many tourists having positive emotions and insights on social media after their trips. Although, North Korea will still attempt to keep tourism numbers in order to avoid the potentially disruptive political impacts of having too many tourists interacting with their citizens.[20]

Mexican drug cartels

Drug cartels have been engaged in propaganda and psychological campaigns to influence their rivals and those within their area of influence. They use banners and narcomantas to threaten their rivals.[21] Some cartels hand out pamphlets and leaflets to conduct public relation campaigns. They have been able to control the information environment by threatening journalists, bloggers and others who speak out against them. They have elaborate recruitment strategies targeting young adults to join their cartel groups. They have successfully branded the word narco, and the word has become part of Mexican culture. There is music, television shows, literature, beverages, food and architecture that all have been branded narco.[22][23]

United States

The Shared Values Initiative was a public relations campaign that was intended to promote the continued acceptance of Muslims living in the United States to foreigners across the world.[24] Funded by the United States Department of State, the campaign created a public relations front group known as Council of American Muslims for Understanding (CAMU). The campaign was divided in phases; the first of which consisted of five mini-documentaries for television, radio, and print with shared values messages for key Muslim countries.[25]

People's Republic of China

Propaganda is used by the Chinese Communist Party to sway public and international opinion in favour of its policies.[26][27] Domestically, this includes censorship of proscribed views and an active cultivation of views that favour the government. Propaganda is considered central to the operation of the Chinese government.[28] The term in general use in China, xuanchuan (宣傳 "propaganda; publicity") can have either a neutral connotation in official government contexts or a pejorative connotation in informal contexts.[29] Some xuanchuan collocations usually refer to "propaganda" (e.g., xuānchuánzhàn 宣传战 "propaganda war"), others to "publicity" (xuānchuán méijiè 宣傳媒介 "mass media; means of publicity"), and still others are ambiguous (xuānchuányuán 宣传员 "propagandist; publicist").[30]

Aspects of propaganda can be traced back to the earliest periods of Chinese history, but propaganda has been most effective in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, following the Chinese Civil War, owing to mass media and an authoritarian government.[28] China in the era of Mao Zedong is known for its constant use of mass campaigns to legitimise the state and the policies of leaders. It was the first Chinese government to successfully make use of modern mass propaganda techniques, adapting them to the needs of a country which had a largely rural and illiterate population.[28] In poor developing countries, China spreads propaganda through methods such as opening Confucius Institutes, and providing training programs in China for foreign officials and students.[31]

The Chinese Dream is an example of mass media being used to promote propaganda in the 21st Century. The overall message of its propaganda was a new start for China through posters and displays.[32]  Visuals were used in order to shape the thinking of people considering past historical and social events. Posters showing rural environments, peasants, and folk art were intended to mix both the past and present of China.

As the internet is becoming more advanced, China has begun to implement technology into their media and mass propaganda techniques. China has created their own digital applications throughout the recent years in order for its government to spread their word through more efficient communication.[33] An instance where an uproar occurred was an Internet water army, where false rumors about the Coronavirus in Wenzhou and the nuclear pollution in Fukushima was spread throughout social media platforms. Because of the catastrophic outcomes, the government had taken stricter precautions with social media. WeChat was monitored in 2014 by the government for any sensitive posts (which later were deleted) and censored to minimize the possibility of any false rumors spreading.[34]

Vietnam

Posters hanging everywhere often describe unity of the working class, farmers and soldiers under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh.[35] Residents and students have been studying ethics and ideology of Ho Chi Minh.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Thayer, Holly (1 July 2018). "21st Century Propaganda: The Age of Twitter". Honors College Theses.
  2. ↑ "Perspective | Why propaganda is more dangerous in the digital age". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  3. ↑ Pedro, Joan (26 October 2011). "The Propaganda Model in the Early 21st Century (Part I)". International Journal of Communication. 5: 41. ISSN 1932-8036.
  4. ↑ Altheide, David L. "War and Mass Mediated Evidence." Cultural Studies — Critical Methodologies 9 (2009): 14–22.
  5. 1 2 Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 23–32.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15–24.
  7. 1 2 Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 24
  8. 1 2 Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 26
  9. 1 2 Shah, Anup. Iraq War Media Reporting, Journalism and Propaganda. Aug 1, 2007. May 12, 2009. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/461/media-reporting-journalism-and-propaganda.>
  10. ↑ Goldstein, Sol. "A Strategic Failure: American Information Control Policy in Occupied Iraq." Military Review 88.2 (March 2008): 58–65.
  11. ↑ Baldor, Lolita C. (30 November 2005). "U.S. Military Unclear on 'Planted' Stories". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 30 June 2006.
  12. ↑ Baldor, Lolita C. (2 December 2005). "Pentagon describes Iraq propaganda plan". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 5 December 2005.
  13. ↑ Thrall, A. Trevor (2007). "A Review of: "Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq, by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq, by Paul Rutherford Selling Intervention & War: The Presidency, the Media, and the American Public, by Jon Western"". Political Communication. 24 (2): 202–207. doi:10.1080/10584600701313074.
  14. ↑ Engelhardt, Tom. "Catapulting the Propaganda". Mother Jones. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
  15. 1 2 O'Shaughnessy, Nicholas (2004). "Weapons of Mass Seduction". Journal of Political Marketing. 3 (4): 79–104. doi:10.1300/J199v03n04_04. S2CID 146181559.
  16. ↑ John, Sue Lockett; Domke, David; Coe, Kevin; Graham, Erica S. (2007). "Going Public, Crisis after Crisis: The Bush Administration and the Press from September 11 to Saddam". Rhetoric and Public Affairs. 10 (2): 195–219. doi:10.1353/rap.2007.0039. JSTOR 41940143. S2CID 143526992.
  17. ↑ Mach, Andrew (10 May 2015). "Report: Defense Dept. paid NFL millions of taxpayer dollars to salute troops". NPR. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  18. ↑ Boren, Cindy (4 November 2015). "Report: At least 50 teams were paid by Department of Defense for patriotic displays". The Washington Post. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  19. ↑ Nuclear Nightmare: Understanding North Korea
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Ouellette, Dean J. (December 2016). "The Tourism of North Korea in the Kim Jong-un Era: Propaganda, Profitmaking, and Possibilities for Engagement: Tourism of North Korea". Pacific Focus. 31 (3): 421–451. doi:10.1111/pafo.12084.
  21. ↑ Eiss, Paul K. (2014). "The Narcomedia: A Reader's Guide". Latin American Perspectives. 41 (2): 78–98. doi:10.1177/0094582X14521388. ISSN 0094-582X. JSTOR 24575499. S2CID 145367262.
  22. ↑ O'Connor, Mike (5 November 2010). "Analysis: A PR department for Mexico's narcos". GlobalPost. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  23. ↑ Beckhart, Sarah (21 February 2011). "The Narco Generation". AL DÍA. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars's Mexico Institute. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  24. ↑ Rampton, Sheldon (17 October 2007). "Shared Values Revisited". Center for Media and Democracy.
  25. ↑ "U.S. Reaches Out to Muslim World with Shared Values Initiative". America.gov. 16 January 2003. Archived from the original on 18 October 2011.
  26. ↑ Brady, Anne-Marie (2006). "Guiding Hand: The Role of the CCP Central Propaganda Department in the Current Era". Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture. 1 (3): 58–77. doi:10.16997/wpcc.15.
  27. ↑ Shambaugh, David (January 2007). "China's Propaganda System: Institutions, Processes and Efficacy". China Journal. 57 (57): 25–58. doi:10.1086/tcj.57.20066240. S2CID 222814073.
  28. 1 2 3 Mitter, Rana (2003). Nicholas J. Cull; David Colbert; David Welch (eds.). Entry on "China" in Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present. ABC-ClIO. pp. 73–77.
  29. ↑ Kingsley Edney (2014), The Globalization of Chinese Propaganda: International Power and Domestic Political Cohesion, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 22, 195.
  30. ↑ Translations from John DeFrancis, ed. (2003), ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary, University of Hawaii Press, p. 1087.
  31. ↑ Kurlantzick, Joshua; Perry Link (2009). "China's Modern Authoritarianism". The Wall Street Journal.
  32. ↑ Sun, Zhen (February 2019). "Utopia, nostalgia, and femininity: visually promoting the Chinese Dream". Visual Communication. 18 (1): 107–133. doi:10.1177/1470357217740394. ISSN 1470-3572. S2CID 149312217.
  33. ↑ Creemers, Rogier (2 December 2015). "Cyber China: Updating Propaganda, Public Opinion Work and Social Management for the 21st Century". Rochester, NY. SSRN 2698062. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. ↑ Roney, Tyler. "China's Sudden WeChat Crackdown". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
  35. ↑ Bayly, Susan (21 November 2019). "The voice of propaganda". Terrain. Anthropologie & Sciences Humaines (72). doi:10.4000/terrain.18881. ISSN 0760-5668. S2CID 214048882.
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