Portal:Animals

The Animals Portal

Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.

As of 2022, around 2.16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animals' body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviors is known as ethology.

Most living animal species belong to the infrakingdom Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. Extant bilaterians include the basal group Xenacoelomorpha, but the vast majority belong to two large superphyla: the protostomes, which include phyla such as arthropods, molluscs, flatworms, annelids and nematodes, etc.; and the deuterostomes, which include the three phyla echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates, the latter with the vertebrates being its most successful subphylum. Precambrian life forms interpreted as early complex animals were already present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Proterozoic, but fossils of primitive sponge and other speculative early animals have been dated to as early as the Tonian period. Nearly all modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago (Mya), and most classes during the Ordovician radiation 485.4 Mya. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 Mya during the Cryogenian period. (Full article...)

Zoology (/zoʊˈɒlədʒi/) is the scientific study of animals. Its studies include the structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Zoology is one of the primary branches of biology. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion ('animal'), and λόγος, logos ('knowledge', 'study'). (Full article...)

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Eastern raccoon (P. l. lotor), Central Park in New York City

The raccoon (/rəˈkuːn/ or US: /ræˈkuːn/ ^ⓘ, Procyon lotor), also spelled racoon and sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from the other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of 40 to 70 cm (16 to 28 in), and a body weight of 5 to 26 kg (11 to 57 lb). Its grayish coat mostly consists of dense underfur, which insulates it against cold weather. Three of the raccoon's most distinctive features are its extremely dexterous front paws, its facial mask, and its ringed tail, which are themes in the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas relating to the animal. The raccoon is noted for its intelligence, as studies show that it is able to remember the solution to tasks for at least three years. It is usually nocturnal and omnivorous, eating about 40% invertebrates, 33% plants, and 27% vertebrates.

The original habitats of the raccoon are deciduous and mixed forests, but due to their adaptability, they have extended their range to mountainous areas, coastal marshes, and urban areas, where some homeowners consider them to be pests. As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the mid-20th century, raccoons are now also distributed across central Europe, the Caucasus, and Japan. (Full article...)

List of selected animal articles

Selected pictures

Image 1
Rotifers
Credit: Frank Fox
The rotifers (/ˈroʊtɪfərz/, from the Latin rota, "wheel", and -fer, "bearing"), commonly called wheel animals or wheel animalcules, make up a phylum (Rotifera /roʊˈtɪfərə/) of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals. (Full article...)
Image 2
Calliope Hummingbird
Photo: Wolfgang Wander
A female Calliope Hummingbird (Stellula calliope), the smallest bird found in Canada and the United States, feeding insects to chicks. Found mostly in western North America (although vagrants have been found in New York and Connecticut), it is migratory and winters in southwestern Mexico.
Image 3
Hadrosauroidea
Image credit: Debivort
Representative dinosaurs of the Hadrosauroidea superfamily. The family Hadrosauridae contains the dinosaurs commonly known as "duck-billed" dinosaurs. They were ubiquitous herbivores during the Cretaceous period, and prey to theropoda such as Tyrannosaurus. The individual drawings represent typical genera. All these groups were alive in the late Cretaceous, and are generally known only from a single fossil site. Animals are shown to scale.
Image 4
Sponges
Credit: Twilight Zone Expedition Team 2007, NOAA-OE
Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (/pəˈrɪfərə/; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. (Full article...) Included are the yellow tube sponge, Aplysina fistularis, the purple vase sponge, Niphates digitalis, the red encrusting sponge, Spirastrella coccinea, and the gray rope sponge, Callyspongia sp.
Image 5
Flatworms
Credit: Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialised circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously. (Full article...)
Image 6
Brown pelican
Photograph credit: Frank Schulenburg
The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) is a bird of the pelican family, Pelecanidae, one of three species found in the Americas and one of two that feed by diving into water. This photograph shows a juvenile brown pelican gliding over the Pacific Ocean at Bodega Head, California.

After hatching, the pelican chicks are fed on regurgitated predigested fish and take about two months to fledge. When they leave the nest, they are at first unable to fly and take wing several weeks later. When the parents cease to feed them, some six months later, each will have consumed around 70 kg (150 lb) of fish. The juvenile brown pelican does not acquire adult plumage until three years of age, when the feathers on the neck become paler, the upperparts striped, the wing feathers grayer, and the belly acquires dark spots.
Image 7
Osprey
Photo credit: NASA
The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is a medium large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. It is often known by other colloquial names such as Fish Hawk, Sea Hawk or Fish Eagle.

The Osprey is particularly well adapted to its diet, with reversible outer toes, closable nostrils to keep out water during dives, and backwards facing scales on the talons which act as barbs to help catch fish.
Image 8
Bird-cherry ermine
Photograph credit: Charles J. Sharp
The bird-cherry ermine (Yponomeuta evonymella) is a species of moth in the family Yponomeutidae, native to Europe and parts of Asia. The caterpillars are gregarious and feed on the leaves of the bird cherry tree, forming silken webbing for their own protection. They create further webbing on the trunk and near the base of the tree, which hides them as they pupate. This photograph shows one of many bird-cherry ermine caterpillar nests on a tree in Lahemaa National Park, Estonia. In some years, they are so numerous that they can completely strip a tree of its foliage.
Image 9
Bryozoa
Credit: Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
Bryozoa (also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or commonly as moss animals) are a phylum of simple, aquatic invertebrate animals, nearly all living in sedentary colonies. Typically about 0.5 millimetres (1⁄64 in) long, they have a special feeding structure called a lophophore, a "crown" of tentacles used for filter feeding. Most marine bryozoans live in tropical waters, but a few are found in oceanic trenches and polar waters. The bryozoans are classified as the marine bryozoans (Stenolaemata), freshwater bryozoans (Phylactolaemata), and mostly-marine bryozoans (Gymnolaemata), a few members of which prefer brackish water. 5,869 living species are known. At least two genera are solitary (Aethozooides and Monobryozoon); the rest are colonial. (Full article...)
Image 10
Soybean cyst nematode
Photograph: Agricultural Research Service
A soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines), together with an egg, as viewed through a low-temperature scanning electron microscope at 1000x magnification. This nematode infects the roots of soybeans, and the female nematode eventually becomes a cyst. Infection causes various symptoms that may include chlorosis of the leaves and stems, root necrosis, loss in seed yield and suppression of root and shoot growth.
Image 11
Alitta succinea
Photograph: Hans Hillewaert
The common clam worm (Alitta succinea) is a widely distributed species of marine polychaete worm. The photograph shows an epitoke specimen, the worm having turned into a form capable of reproduction. After releasing its sperm or eggs, the animal will die.
Image 12
Peacock flounder
Photo: Mila Zinkova
The Peacock flounder (Bothus mancus) is a species of lefteye flounder found widely in relatively shallow waters in the Indo-Pacific. This photomontage shows four separate views of the same fish, each several minutes apart, starting from the top left. Over the course of the photos, the fish changes its colors to match its new surroundings, and then finally (bottom right) buries itself in the sand, leaving only the eyes protruding.
Image 13
Loligo forbesii
Illustration: Comingio Merculiano
Loligo forbesii is a commercially important species of squid in the family Loliginidae. It can be found in the seas around Europe, its range extending through the Red Sea toward the East African coast. The squid lives at depths of 10 to 500 m (30 to 1,600 ft), feeding on fish, polychaetes, crustaceans, and other cephalopods.
Image 14
Annelid diagram
Diagram: K.D. Schroeder
A cross section of a post-clitellum segment of an annelid (ringed worm); almost all segments of an annelid contain the same set of organs and parts, a pattern called metamerism. Annelids have no lungs, but rather exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen directly through the moist skin when blood reaches the extremely fine capillaries of the body walls; a dry worm cannot breathe and will die of suffocation. The worm's red blood, which does not consist of platelets or red cells but mostly of a liquid containing suspended hemoglobin, makes a circuit up and down the animal in its closed circulatory systems.
Image 15
Caesio teres
Photograph: Nick Hobgood
Caesio teres is a pelagic marine fish belonging to the family Caesionidae. Widely distributed throughout the tropical waters of the Indian and western Pacific Ocean, this species feeds on zooplankton. It can grow to 40 cm (16 in) in length.
Image 16
Mating
Photograph: Kateshortforbob
Two poplar hawk-moths in the process of mating, the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms, generally for the purposes of sexual reproduction. Mating may involve copulation if the species' fertilization is internal, but not if it is external. Different species use different strategies to select a mate, including random mating, disassortative mating, assortative mating, and a mating pool.
Image 17
Eutropis macularia
Photograph credit: Basile Morin
Eutropis macularia, the bronze grass skink, is a species of lizard in the skink family, Scincidae, native to South and Southeast Asia. It lives in both deciduous and evergreen forests, in plantations, in grasslands, and in rocky areas with scattered trees. The species is active in both the day and the night, feeding on insects and other invertebrates. This bronze grass skink was photographed on a tree trunk on the island of Don Det in Laos.
Image 18
Brittle star
Credit: Hans Hillewaert
Brittle stars, serpent stars, or ophiuroids (from Latin ophiurus 'brittle star'; from Ancient Greek ὄφις (óphis) 'serpent', and οὐρά (ourá) 'tail'; referring to the serpent-like arms of the brittle star) are echinoderms in the class Ophiuroidea, closely related to starfish. They crawl across the sea floor using their flexible arms for locomotion. The ophiuroids generally have five long, slender, whip-like arms which may reach up to 60 cm (24 in) in length on the largest specimens. (Full article...)
Image 19
Coconut octopus
Photo: Nick Hobgood
The coconut octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus) is a medium-sized cephalopod found in tropical waters of the western Pacific Ocean. It commonly preys upon shrimp, crabs, and clams, and displays unusual behaviour, including bipedal walking and gathering and using coconut shells and seashells for shelter.
Image 20
Lymantria dispar dispar
Photograph: Didier Descouens
A caterpillar of Lymantria dispar dispar, also known as the gypsy moth. First described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the gypsy moth is found throughout Eurasia, where it is considered a pest. The larvae emerge from egg masses in the spring, and then are dispersed by the wind and begin feeding on leaves. They are initially diurnal, but become nocturnal after their fourth molting.

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Nemertea is a phylum of animals also known as ribbon worms or proboscis worms, consisting of 1300 known species. Most ribbon worms are very slim, usually only a few millimeters wide, although a few have relatively short but wide bodies. Many have patterns of yellow, orange, red and green coloration.

The foregut, stomach and intestine run a little below the midline of the body, the anus is at the tip of the tail, and the mouth is under the front. A little above the gut is the rhynchocoel, a cavity which mostly runs above the midline and ends a little short of the rear of the body. All species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts to emerge just above the mouth to capture the animal's prey with venom. A highly extensible muscle in the back of the rhynchocoel pulls the proboscis in when an attack ends. A few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends, with which they attach to a host. (Full article...)

List of selected articles

Did you know -

Close up of "wholphin"

...that the false killer whale has been known to mate in captivity with a bottlenose dolphin, producing an offspring known as a "wholphin" (pictured)?
...that echinoderms, such as the sea star have the ability to regenerate lost appendages?
...that the Portuguese Man o' War, a cnidarian somewhat resembling a jellyfish, is actually a colony of many smaller organisms, collectively known as a siphonophore?
...that Caecillians, an order of amphibians resembling snakes or worms, possess a pair of tentacles, located between their eyes and nostrils which are probably used for olfaction?

General pictures

The following are images from various animal-related articles on Wikipedia.

Image 1Artistic vision: Still Life with Lobster and Oysters by Alexander Coosemans, c. 1660 (from Animal)
Image 2A praying mantis in deimatic or threat pose displays conspicuous patches of colour to startle potential predators. This is not warning coloration as the insect is palatable. (from Animal coloration)
Image 3Linnaeus's table of the animal kingdom from the first edition of Systema Naturae (1735) (from Zoology)
Image 4This frog changes its skin colour to control its temperature. (from Animal coloration)
Image 5The black and yellow warning colours of the cinnabar moth caterpillar, Tyria jacobaeae, are avoided by some birds. (from Animal coloration)
Image 6Non-bilaterians include sponges (centre) and corals (background). (from Animal)
Image 7Cleaner wrasse signals its cleaning services to a big eye squirrelfish (from Animal coloration)
Image 8A venomous coral snake uses bright colours to warn off potential predators. (from Animal coloration)
Image 9The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived. (from Animal)
Image 10Simplified schematic of an island's fauna – all its animal species, highlighted in boxes (from Fauna)
Image 11Anomalocaris canadensis is one of the many animal species that emerged in the Cambrian explosion, starting some 539 mya, and found in the fossil beds of the Burgess shale. (from Animal)
Image 12Conrad Gessner (1516–1565). His Historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology. (from Zoology)
Image 13Sides of beef in a slaughterhouse (from Animal)
Image 14Papuan, Australian and New Zealand fauna. This image was likely first published in the first edition (1876–1899) of the Nordisk familjebok. (from Fauna)
Image 15Bright coloration of orange elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes signals its bitter taste to predators (from Animal coloration)
Image 16Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck led the creation of a modern classification of invertebrates, breaking up Linnaeus's "Vermes" into 9 phyla by 1809. (from Animal)
Image 17A flower mantis, Hymenopus coronatus, uses special Aggressive mimicry. (from Animal coloration)
Image 18The brilliant iridescent colours of the peacock's tail feathers are created by Structural coloration. (from Animal coloration)
Image 19A brilliantly-coloured oriental sweetlips fish (Plectorhinchus vittatus) waits while two boldly-patterned cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus) pick parasites from its skin. The spotted tail and fin pattern of the sweetlips signals sexual maturity; the behaviour and pattern of the cleaner fish signal their availability for cleaning service, rather than as prey (from Animal coloration)
Image 20Kelp gull chicks peck at red spot on mother's beak to stimulate the regurgitating reflex. (from Zoology)
Image 21Warning coloration of the skunk in Edward Bagnall Poulton's The Colours of Animals, 1890 (from Animal coloration)
Image 22Examples of fauna in Olleros de Tera (Spain) (from Fauna)
Image 23The hawk-cuckoo resembles a predatory shikra, giving the cuckoo time to lay eggs in a songbird's nest unnoticed (from Animal coloration)
Image 24In Roseate Spoonbills 1905–1909, Abbott Handerson Thayer tried to show that even the bright pink of these conspicuous birds had a cryptic function. (from Animal coloration)
Image 25The red pigment in a flamingo's plumage comes from its diet of shrimps, which get it from microscopic algae. (from Animal coloration)
Image 26Squid chromatophores appear as black, brown, reddish and pink areas in this micrograph. (from Animal coloration)
Image 27Animals are unique in having the ball of cells of the early embryo (1) develop into a hollow ball or blastula (2). (from Animal)
Image 28Animal anatomical engraving from Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler. (from Zoology)
Image 29Hydrothermal vent mussels and shrimps (from Animal)
Image 30The microscopic cave snail Zospeum tholussum, found at depths of 743 to 1,392 m (2,438 to 4,567 ft) in the Lukina Jama–Trojama cave system of Croatia, is completely blind with a translucent shell (from Fauna)
Image 31Ecdysis: a dragonfly has emerged from its dry exuviae and is expanding its wings. Like other arthropods, its body is divided into segments. (from Animal)
Image 32Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya) (from Animal)
Image 33The bilaterian gut develops in two ways. In many protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth, while in deuterostomes it becomes the anus. (from Animal)
Image 34A Euplokamis comb jelly is bioluminescent. (from Animal coloration)
Image 35Fish and frog melanophores are cells that can change colour by dispersing or aggregating pigment-containing bodies. (from Animal coloration)
Image 36Spiral cleavage in a sea snail embryo (from Animal)
Image 37Idealised bilaterian body plan. With an elongated body and a direction of movement the animal has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the basis of the head. Opposed circular and longitudinal muscles enable peristaltic motion. (from Animal)
Image 38Robert Hooke's Micrographia (from Animal coloration)
Image 39Male Goldie's bird-of-paradise displays to a female (from Animal coloration)
Image 40Predators, such as this ultramarine flycatcher (Ficedula superciliaris), feed on other animals. (from Animal)
Image 41Sexual reproduction is nearly universal in animals, such as these dragonflies. (from Animal)
$Image 42Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating. (from Animal coloration)$
Image 42Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating. (from Animal coloration)
Image 43A clade representation of seven dog breeds in relation to wolves. (from Zoology)
Image 44A gun dog retrieving a duck during a hunt (from Animal)
Image 45A camouflaged orange oak leaf butterfly, Kallima inachus (centre) has protective resemblance. (from Animal coloration)
Image 46Siberian tiger (from Mammalogy)
Image 47Dickinsonia costata from the Ediacaran biota (c. 635–542 mya) is one of the earliest animal species known. (from Animal)
Image 48Side of zebrafish shows how chromatophores (dark spots) respond to 24 hours in dark (above) or light (below). (from Animal coloration)
Image 49The olm's blood makes it appear pink. (from Animal coloration)

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The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the animal groups with the largest numbers of species,^[1] along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water,^[2] and marine),^[3] and free-living or parasitic ways of life.^[4] Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.^[5] Using patterns within the taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011.^[6]^[7]^{[lower-alpha 1]}

Phylum	No. of Species	Land	Sea	Fresh water	Free- living	Parasitic
Annelids	17,000^[1]	Yes (soil)^[3]	Yes^[3]	1,750^[2]	Yes	400^[4]
Arthropods	1,257,000^[1]	1,000,000 (insects)^[9]	>40,000 (Malac- ostraca)^[10]	94,000^[2]	Yes^[3]	>45,000^{[lower-alpha 2]}^[4]
Bryozoa	6,000^[1]		Yes^[3]	60–80^[2]	Yes
Chordates	65,000^[1] 45,000^[11]	23,000^[11]	13,000^[11]	18,000^[2] 9,000^[11]	Yes	40 (catfish)^[12]^[4]
Cnidaria	16,000^[1]		Yes^[3]	Yes (few)^[3]	Yes^[3]	>1,350 (Myxozoa)^[4]
Echinoderms	7,500^[1]		7,500^[1]		Yes^[3]
Molluscs	85,000^[1] 107,000^[13]	35,000^[13]	60,000^[13]	5,000^[2] 12,000^[13]	Yes^[3]	>5,600^[4]
Nematodes	25,000^[1]	Yes (soil)^[3]	4,000^[5]	2,000^[2]	11,000^[5]	14,000^[5]
Platyhelminthes	29,500^[1]	Yes^[14]	Yes^[3]	1,300^[2]	Yes^[3] 3,000–6,500^[15]	>40,000^[4] 4,000–25,000^[15]
Rotifers	2,000^[1]		>400^[16]	2,000^[2]	Yes
Sponges	10,800^[1]		Yes^[3]	200-300^[2]	Yes	Yes^[17]
Total number of described extant species as of 2013: 1,525,728^[1]

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References

↑ The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (Cecidomyiidae).^[8]
↑ Not including parasitoids.^[4]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Balian, E. V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Springer. p. 628. ISBN 978-1-4020-8259-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hogenboom, Melissa. "There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird". BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.
1 2 3 4 Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ISBN 978-1-60344-269-5.
↑ "How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says". 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
↑ Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Worm, Boris (2011-08-23). Mace, Georgina M. (ed.). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.
↑ Hebert, Paul D.N.; Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Zakharov, Evgeny V.; Telfer, Angela C.; Levesque-Beaudin, Valerie; Milton, Megan A.; Pedersen, Stephanie; Jannetta, Paul; deWaard, Jeremy R. (1 August 2016). "Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1702): 20150333. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0333. PMC 4971185. PMID 27481785.
↑ Stork, Nigel E. (January 2018). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. PMID 28938083. S2CID 23755007. Stork notes that 1m insects have been named, making much larger predicted estimates.
↑ Poore, Hugh F. (2002). "Introduction". Crustacea: Malacostraca. Zoological catalogue of Australia. Vol. 19.2A. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-643-06901-5.
1 2 3 4 Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L.; Wilson, Don E.; Wilson, Edward O. (1996). Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-309-52075-1.
↑ Burton, Derek; Burton, Margaret (2017). Essential Fish Biology: Diversity, Structure and Function. Oxford University Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-19-878555-2. Trichomycteridae ... includes obligate parasitic fish. Thus 17 genera from 2 subfamilies, Vandelliinae; 4 genera, 9spp. and Stegophilinae; 13 genera, 31 spp. are parasites on gills (Vandelliinae) or skin (stegophilines) of fish.
1 2 3 4 Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of Molluscs". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 251–254. doi:10.2307/2412618. JSTOR 2412618.
↑ Sluys, R. (1999). "Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies". Biodiversity and Conservation. 8 (12): 1663–1681. doi:10.1023/A:1008994925673. S2CID 38784755.
1 2 Pandian, T. J. (2020). Reproduction and Development in Platyhelminthes. CRC Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781000054903.
↑ Fontaneto, Diego. "Marine Rotifers | An Unexplored World of Richness" (PDF). JMBA Global Marine Environment. pp. 4–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
↑ Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015). Parasite Diversity and Diversification. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-107-03765-6. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

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[9] The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (Cecidomyiidae).^[8]

[12] Not including parasitoids.^[4]

[Zhang2013-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Balian2008-2] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Balian, E. V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Springer. p. 628. ISBN 978-1-4020-8259-7.

[Hogenboom2016-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hogenboom, Melissa. "There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird". BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Poulin2007-4] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.

[Felder2009-5] 1 2 3 4 Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ISBN 978-1-60344-269-5.

[6] "How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says". 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[Mora2011-7] Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Worm, Boris (2011-08-23). Mace, Georgina M. (ed.). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.

[8] Hebert, Paul D.N.; Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Zakharov, Evgeny V.; Telfer, Angela C.; Levesque-Beaudin, Valerie; Milton, Megan A.; Pedersen, Stephanie; Jannetta, Paul; deWaard, Jeremy R. (1 August 2016). "Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1702): 20150333. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0333. PMC 4971185. PMID 27481785.

[Stork2018-10] Stork, Nigel E. (January 2018). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. PMID 28938083. S2CID 23755007. Stork notes that 1m insects have been named, making much larger predicted estimates.

[11] Poore, Hugh F. (2002). "Introduction". Crustacea: Malacostraca. Zoological catalogue of Australia. Vol. 19.2A. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-643-06901-5.

[Reaka-Kudla1996-13] 1 2 3 4 Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L.; Wilson, Don E.; Wilson, Edward O. (1996). Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-309-52075-1.

[14] Burton, Derek; Burton, Margaret (2017). Essential Fish Biology: Diversity, Structure and Function. Oxford University Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-19-878555-2. Trichomycteridae ... includes obligate parasitic fish. Thus 17 genera from 2 subfamilies, Vandelliinae; 4 genera, 9spp. and Stegophilinae; 13 genera, 31 spp. are parasites on gills (Vandelliinae) or skin (stegophilines) of fish.

[Nicol1969-15] 1 2 3 4 Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of Molluscs". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 251–254. doi:10.2307/2412618. JSTOR 2412618.

[16] Sluys, R. (1999). "Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies". Biodiversity and Conservation. 8 (12): 1663–1681. doi:10.1023/A:1008994925673. S2CID 38784755.

[Pandian-17] 1 2 Pandian, T. J. (2020). Reproduction and Development in Platyhelminthes. CRC Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9781000054903.

[18] Fontaneto, Diego. "Marine Rotifers | An Unexplored World of Richness" (PDF). JMBA Global Marine Environment. pp. 4–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

[19] Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015). Parasite Diversity and Diversification. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-107-03765-6. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.

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