Psychedelic therapy (or psychedelic-assisted therapy) refers to the proposed use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, MDMA,[note 1] LSD, and ayahuasca, to treat mental disorders.[2][3] As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions.[3][4]

The procedure for psychedelic therapy differs from that of therapies using conventional psychiatric medications. While conventional medications are usually taken without supervision at least once daily, in contemporary psychedelic therapy the drug is administered in a single session (or sometimes up to three sessions) in a therapeutic context.[5] The therapeutic team prepares the patient for the experience beforehand and helps them integrate insights from the drug experience afterwards.[6][7] After ingesting the drug, the patient normally wears eyeshades and listens to music to facilitate focus on the psychedelic experience, with the therapeutic team interrupting only to provide reassurance if adverse effects such as anxiety or disorientation arise.[6][7]

As of 2022, the body of high-quality evidence on psychedelic therapy remains relatively small and more, larger studies are needed to reliably show the effectiveness and safety of psychedelic therapy's various forms and applications.[8][9][2] On the basis of favorable early results, ongoing research is examining proposed psychedelic therapies for conditions including major depressive disorder,[8][10] anxiety and depression linked to terminal illness,[8][11] and post-traumatic stress disorder.[9][12] The United States Food and Drug Administration has granted "breakthrough therapy" status, which expedites the assessment of promising drug therapies for potential approval,[note 2] to psychedelic therapies using psilocybin (for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder)[3] and MDMA (for post-traumatic stress disorder).[14]

History

Prehistoric use of psychedelic substances

Humans have long consumed psychedelic substances derived from cacti, seeds, bark, and roots of various plants and fungi.[15][16] Since ancient times, shamans and medicine men have used psychedelics as a way to gain access to the spirit world. Though western culture usually views the practice of shamans and medicine men as predominantly spiritual in nature, elements of psychotherapeutic practice can be read into the entheogenic or shamanic rituals of many cultures.[17]

Research in the mid-20th century

Shortly after Albert Hofmann discovered the psychoactive properties of LSD in 1943,[18] Sandoz Laboratories began widespread distribution of LSD to researchers in 1949.[19] Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, scientists in several countries conducted extensive research into experimental chemotherapeutic, and psychotherapeutic uses of psychedelic drugs. In addition to spawning six international conferences and the release of dozens of books, over 1,000 peer-reviewed clinical papers detailing the use of psychedelic compounds (administered to approximately 40,000 patients) were published by the mid-1960s.[20] Proponents believed that psychedelic drugs facilitated psychoanalytic processes, making them particularly useful for patients with conditions such as alcoholism that are otherwise difficult to treat. However, many of these trials did not meet the methodological standards that are required today.[21]

Researchers like Timothy Leary felt psychedelics could alter the fundamental personality structure or subjective value-system of an individual to great potential benefit. Beginning in 1961, he conducted experiments with prison inmates in an attempt to reduce recidivism with short, intense psychotherapy sessions. Participants were administered psilocybin during these sessions weeks apart with regular group therapy sessions in between.[22] Psychedelic therapy was also applied in a number of other specific patient populations including individuals with alcoholism, children with autism, and persons with terminal illness.[22]

Regulation and prohibition in the late 20th century

Throughout the 1960s, concerns raised about the proliferation of unauthorized use of psychedelic drugs by the general public (and, most notably, the counterculture) resulted in the imposition of increasingly severe restrictions on medical and psychiatric research conducted with psychedelic substances.[23] Many countries either banned LSD outright or made it extremely scarce, and, bowing to governmental concerns, Sandoz halted production of LSD in 1965. During a congressional hearing in 1966, Senator Robert F. Kennedy questioned the shift of opinion, stating, "Perhaps to some extent we have lost sight of the fact that (LSD) can be very, very helpful in our society if used properly."[24] In 1968, Dahlberg and colleagues published an article in the American Journal of Psychiatry detailing various forces that had successfully discredited legitimate LSD research.[25] The essay argues that individuals in government and the pharmaceutical industry sabotaged the psychedelic research community by canceling ongoing studies and analysis while labeling genuine scientists as charlatans.[25]

Studies on medicinal applications of psychedelics ceased entirely in the United States when the Controlled Substances Act was passed in 1970. LSD and many other psychedelics were placed into the most restrictive "Schedule I" category by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration. Schedule I compounds are claimed to possess "significant potential for abuse and dependence" and have "no recognized medicinal value",[26] effectively rendering them illegal to use in the United States for all purposes. Despite objections from the scientific community, authorized research into therapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs had been discontinued worldwide by the 1980s.

Despite broad prohibition, unofficial psychedelic research and therapeutic sessions continued nevertheless in the following decades. Some therapists exploited windows of opportunity preceding scheduling of particular psychedelic drugs. Informal psychedelic therapy was conducted clandestinely in underground networks consisting of sessions carried out both by licensed therapists and autodidacts within the community.[27] Due to the largely illegal nature of psychedelic therapy in this period, little information is available concerning the methods that were used. Individuals having published information between 1980 and 2000 regarding psychedelic psychotherapy include George Greer, Ann and Alexander Shulgin (PiHKAL and TiHKAL), Myron Stolaroff (The Secret Chief, regarding the underground therapy done by Leo Zeff), and Athanasios Kafkalides.[28]

Resurgence in the early 21st century

Psilocybin session at Johns Hopkins

In the early 2000s, a renewal of interest in the psychiatric use of psychedelics contributed to an increase in clinical research centering on the psychopharmacological effects of these drugs and their subsequent applications. Advances in science and technology allowed researchers to collect and interpret extensive data from animal studies, and the advent of new technologies such as PET and MRI scanning made it possible to examine the sites of action of hallucinogens in the brain.[29] Furthermore, retrospective studies involving users of illicit drugs as voluntary subjects were conducted, allowing data to be collected on how psychedelics affect the human brain while simultaneously sidestepping bureaucratic difficulties associated with providing illegal substances to subjects.[29] The new century also ushered in a broader change in political attitude towards psychedelic medicine—specifically within the Food and Drug Administration. Curtis Wright, then deputy director of the FDA Division of Anesthetic, Critical Care and Addiction Drugs explained a motivation for this change: "the agency was challenged legally in a number of cases and also underwent a process of introspection, asking 'Is it proper to treat this class of drugs differently?'"[29]

As of 2014, global treaties listing LSD and psilocybin as "Schedule I" controlled substances continues to inhibit a better understanding of these drugs. Much of the renewed clinical research has been conducted with psilocybin and MDMA in the United States with special permission and breakthrough therapy designations by the FDA, while other studies have investigated the mechanisms and effects of ayahuasca and LSD.[30][31][32] MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is being actively researched by MAPS.

As of 2023, many new centers for psychedelics research have been launched, including the Centre for Psychedelic Research at Imperial College London,[33][34] the UC Berkeley Center for the Science of Psychedelics,[35] the Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research at Johns Hopkins University,[36][37] the Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy at Dell Medical School at the University of Texas at Austin,[38] the Center for Psychedelic Psychotherapy and Trauma Research at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai,[39] the Psychae Institute in Melbourne,[40] and the Naut sa mawt Center for Psychedelic Research at Vancouver Island University.[41] Harvard will create a Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture.[42]

A survey published in 2023[43] found strong support for psychedelic therapy among psychiatrists in the United States, revealing a significant positive shift in attitudes toward this treatment modality in comparison to a previous survey published in 2018.[44] More than half of psychiatrists in the 2023 study expressed intentions to incorporate psychedelic therapyinto their practice if regulatory approval is granted. In Australia, authorised psychiatrists can prescribe psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, and MDMA for post-traumatic stress disorder.[45]

Applications

Psychedelic substances which may have therapeutic uses include psilocybin (the main active compound found in "magic" mushrooms), LSD, and mescaline (the main active compound in the peyote cactus).[30] Although the history behind these substances has hindered research into their potential medicinal value, scientists are now able to conduct studies and renew research that was halted in the 1970s. Some research has shown that these substances have helped people with such mental disorders as obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, alcoholism, depression, and cluster headaches.[46] Some of the well known particular psychedelic substances that have been used to this day are: LSD, DMT, psilocybin, mescaline, 2C-B, 2C-I, 5-MeO-DMT, AMT, ibogaine and DOM. In general, the mechanism of action of how these drugs have therapeutic effects is poorly understood. Their effects are strongly dependent on the environment in which they are given and on the recipient's state of mind (set and setting).[47]

In substance use disorders

Studies by Humphry Osmond, Betty Eisner, and others examined the possibility that psychedelic therapy could treat alcoholism (or, less commonly, other addictions). Bill Wilson, the founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, used LSD during supervised experiments with Betty Eisner, Gerald Heard, and Aldous Huxley. He ingested LSD for the first time on August 29, 1956. With Wilson's invitation, his wife Lois, his spiritual adviser Father Ed Dowling, and Nell Wing also participated in experimentation of this drug. Later Wilson wrote to Carl Jung, praising the results and recommending it as validation of Jung's spiritual experience.[48] According to Wilson, the session allowed him to re-experience a spontaneous spiritual experience he had had years before, which had enabled him to overcome his own alcoholism.

A 1998 review of the effectiveness of psychedelic therapy for treating alcoholism concluded that due to methodological difficulties in the research prior to that time, it was not possible to state whether it was effective.[49] A 2012 meta-analysis found that "In a pooled analysis of six randomized controlled clinical trials, a single dose of LSD had a significant beneficial effect on alcohol misuse at the first reported follow-up assessment, which ranged from 1 to 12 months after discharge from each treatment program. This treatment effect from LSD on alcohol misuse was also seen at 2 to 3 months and at 6 months, but was not statistically significant at 12 months post-treatment. Among the three trials that reported total abstinence from alcohol use, there was also a significant beneficial effect of LSD at the first reported follow-up, which ranged from 1 to 3 months after discharge from each treatment program."[50]

In 2022 a systematic review was published on the efficacy of ibogaine/noribogaine, an indole alkaloid with “anti-addictive” properties, to treat substance use disorders looking at studies up to December 2020.[51] Oral ingestion of ibogaine leads to an intense psychedelic experience with effects lasting up to 72 hours that lead participants to insights that may change the way they view life and their ways of thinking, however, the mechanism of how this drug works to reduce substance use is not yet understood.[52] Evidence suggests that ibogaine does have some reduction on opioid and cocaine misuse, but more well designed, larger randomly controlled trials are required to fully understand the therapeutic benefits.[51] Significant adverse reactions were experienced by participants including cardiotoxicity, QT prolongation, ataxia, psychosis, and several fatalities were reported due to toxic adverse events.[53] Analysis of the fatalities concluded that patients with cardiac comorbidities and that those that are taking concurrent medications are at higher risk of a medical emergency.[54]

A systematic review completed in 2023 containing studies from the past decade, looked at the ability of psychedelic therapy in combination with psychotherapy to help reduce substance use, cravings and abstinence of addictions including alcohol, cocaine, opioids and nicotine. Studies commonly reported reductions in substance misuse, however, the quality of evidence is too low to make draw solid conclusions on the efficacy of psychedelic treatments for substance use disorders.[55]

In terminal illness

During the early 1950s and 1960s the National Institute of Mental Health sponsored the study of psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin and LSD to alleviate the debilitating anxiety and depression patients with terminal diagnoses may feel.[56] While these early studies are hard to find, the resurgence of interest in psychedelic drugs to treat humans end of life mindset has led to some small studies in the 21st century. The more recently published research strengthens the findings from the 1950s and 1960s showing the drug is extremely effective in reducing anxiety and depression in this patient population once carefully screened and has few adverse effects when administered in a psychotherapy setting and under medical supervision. The psychologists leading psychedelic drug therapy trials found that end of life patients often experience the emotional turmoil of dying more than the physical aspects. This mindset makes it difficult for patients to find meaning and enjoyment in life during their last few months or years.[57] While all patients have completely different experiences on these mind altering drugs the research subjects interviewed all expressed they had, "heightened clarity and confidence about their personal values and priorities, and a renewed or enhanced recognition of intrinsic meaning and value of life."[56] More recently, researchers have argued that psychedelic therapy is beneficial for these patients because it may specifically reduce their fear of dying.[58]

As of 2016, Johns Hopkins University and New York University have conducted large randomized, placebo-controlled studies.[59] These two studies are some of the first large controlled studies measuring the effects of psychedelic therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients.[59] Across clinician-ratings and self-ratings, the psychedelic treatment produced statistically significant lowered anxiety and depression, with sustenance for at least 6 months.[60][61] The studies monitored for adverse effects from the drugs but no serious adverse effects were observed.[60][61] Both studies also attributed the efficacy in part to patients experiencing a "mystical experience".[60][61] A mystical experience is a very personal introspective experience where some sort of unity or transcendence of time and space is described.[62] More research is necessary to expand generalizability of the conclusions. Also, more research is necessary to understand the biological properties of a mystical experience.[61][63]

Evidence is growing for the use of atypical psychedelics such as ketamine for treating depression in terminally ill patients, with repeated IV administration having the most therapeutic effect.[64] These studies did not have any patients experience any serious adverse effects; however, ketamine-induced ulcerative cystitis is a concern for repeated long-term administration.[64] Qualitative studies are required to better understand the mechanism and thought process changes that lead to therapeutic outcomes.[65]

In post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is conducting studies in the psychedelic treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Phase 2 trials of these studies, conducted in the U.S., Canada, and Israel, consisted of 107 participants who had chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD, and had had PTSD for an average of 17.8 years. Out of the 107 participants, 61% no longer qualified for PTSD after three sessions of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy two months after the treatment. At the 12-month follow-up session, 68% no longer had PTSD.[66] Phase 2 trials conducted between 2004 and 2010 reported an overall remission rate of 66.2% and low rates of adverse effects for subjects with chronic PTSD.[67] In 2017, MAPS and the FDA reached an agreement on the special protocol for phase 3 trials.[68]

Evidence shows that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy versus control shows clinically significant improvement in Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) scores from baseline, with most of the patients no longer meeting the CAPS score for PTSD.[69] Effects of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy can be observed up to 12 months after receiving 2-3 active sessions of moderate to high dose MDMA (75-125 MG).[69]

It is important to note that given the difficulties with appropriate blinding in trials of MDMA- and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy the results are likely overestimated.[70][71] Furthermore, there are no superiority or non-inferiority clinical trials comparing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy to already existent evidence-based treatments for PTSD, but given the effects reported in clinical trials of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD there is no reason to believe that this treatment modality is more effective than existent trauma-focused psychological treatments.[72]

In depressive and anxiety disorders

In 2019, the FDA approved the use of esketamine for intranasal use for major depressive disorder (MDD) and treatment-resistant depression (TRD), in conjunction with an oral antidepressant.[73]

Also in 2019, the FDA granted "breakthrough therapy" status to psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder in order to hasten the process for potential regulatory approval.[74] The designation of "breakthrough therapy" fast-tracks the study of drugs where preliminary clinical evidence shows that they could be substantially more effective than therapies that are already available.[75]

Studies on the clinical effects of ayahuasca have found significant antidepressant and anxiety-reducing effects, leading to calls for further research to overcome methodological limitations in the existing studies.[76]

There is some evidence that psilocybin in combination with MDMA might help with psychiatric disorders, but only when administered in a controlled clinical setting.[77]

The first meta-analysis assessing suicidality with psychedelic therapy was published in 2022 and found that reductions in suicidality scores can be observed immediately after administration of ayahuasca or psilocybin and can be observed up to 6 months after administration.[78] The studies included in the meta-analysis are limited by the fact that the focus of the studies included in the meta-analysis were not focused on suicidality, further studies are required to better understand the potential mechanisms of change caused by psychedelic therapy.[78]

In reducing criminal behavior

In 2017, researchers mainly from the University of Birmingham published research suggesting that psilocybin use is correlated with reduced criminal behavior. The researchers analyzed data from 480,000 U.S. adults collected by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health on their past use of psychedelics, including ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, LSD, mescaline, peyote, San Pedro, and psilocybin mushrooms. While other illicit drugs have been associated with increased criminal behavior, the researchers found that psychedelic substances were instead associated with reduced criminal behavior. Usage of these substances was associated with a 12% reduction in likelihood of assault, 18% reduction in likelihood of other violent crimes, 27% reduction in likelihood of committing larceny and theft, and 22% reduction in likelihood of committing other property crimes.[79] These findings potentially support the use of psychedelic therapy in forensic and clinical settings.[80]

In a prior 2014 study, researchers explored the relationship between recidivism and naturalistic hallucinogens in criminal justice populations with a history of substance use. The results concluded that hallucinogens promoted prosocial behaviors in the population with high recidivism rates. The usage of hallucinogens has been found to reduce supervision failure in ex-convicts. This inherently encourages drug abstinence, including the use of alcohol, resulting in higher recidivism rates.[81]

A 2018 study found that men who had used psychedelic drugs in the past were less likely to commit violence against their current partners compared to those who hadn't used these substances. The study suggests that the use of psychedelic drugs in men might be associated with a reduced likelihood of committing violence against intimate partners, potentially due to improved emotion regulation.[82]

A 2022 study associated lowered odds of crime arrests with classic use of psychedelic substances. The research suggests that 7 of the 11 arrest variables were reduced with lifetime psilocybin use. Peyote use was found to reduce the odds of driving under the influence and vehicle theft. Lastly, mescaline was found to reduce drug possession/sale. No other substances shared a positive relationship with reducing criminal behavior.[83]

Contraindications

Psychedelic therapy is contraindicated for people who:[84][85][86]

  • are pregnant,
  • have a history of epilepsy/other seizure disorder,
  • have severe cardiovascular disease including uncontrolled blood pressure, heart failure, coronary artery disease or previous heart attack or stroke,
  • use medications like SSRI or MAO-I antidepressants,
  • have a personal or family history of primary psychotic or affective disorders like Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective disorder, Bipolar 1 disorder, or psychotic symptoms in the setting of depression.

Methods

Standard psychedelic therapy

The main approach used in the contemporary resurgence of research, often simply called psychedelic therapy, involves the use of moderate-to-high doses of psychedelic drugs.[7] The psychedelic therapy method was initiated by Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer (with some influence from Al Hubbard) and replicated by Keith Ditman,[87][88] and is more closely aligned to transpersonal psychology than to traditional psychoanalysis. Most recent research on psychedelic therapy has used psilocybin or ayahuasca.[7]

Patients spend most of the acute period of the drug's activity lying down with eyeshades listening to music selected beforehand and exploring their inner experience. Dialogue with the therapists the drug session(s) but essential during the preparation session before and the integration session afterwards. The therapeutic team normally consists of a man and a woman, who are both present throughout the psychedelic experience.[89] One aspect that occurs in most participants undergoing psychedelic therapy with moderate-to-high doses is transcendental, mystical, or peak experiences. Research has suggested that the strength of these experiences, together with discussion of them soon after in a therapeutic session, could be a major determinant of how great the longer-term effects on symptoms will be.[7]

Some studies of psychedelic therapy have incorporated cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or motivational enhancement therapy (MET). Within a structured CBT intervention and a dose of psilocybin, patients are given the opportunity to experience cognitive and emotional states that are altered. With these psychedelic effects, cognitive reframing of detrimental schemas and self-identity can be modified positively.[90] [91]

In a MET environment, patients are able to reflect on their own behaviors to make changes in problematic manners, such as alcohol use disorder. Additionally, it could potentially enhance motivation to change and decrease possible ambivalence about behavioral changes. Within psychedelic drug sessions, through a reevaluation of the concept of self and reconnecting with core beliefs and values, this can be achieved.[7]

Psycholytic therapy

Psycholytic therapy involves the use of low-to-medium doses of psychedelic drugs, repeatedly at intervals of 1–2 weeks. The therapist is present during the peak of the experience to assist the patient in processing material that arises and to offer support. This general form of therapy was mostly used to treat patients with neurotic and psychosomatic disorders. The name psycholytic therapy was coined by Ronald A. Sandison,[note 3] literally meaning "soul-dissolving", refers to the belief that the therapy can dissolve conflicts in the mind. Psycholytic therapy was historically an important approach to psychedelic psychotherapy in Europe, and was also practiced in the United States by some psychotherapists, including Betty Eisner. In the time since the 1970s, psycholytic therapy has not been a focus of research.[7]

Psychedelic drugs are useful for exploring the subconscious because a conscious sliver of the adult ego usually remains active during the experience.[20]: 196  Patients remain intellectually alert throughout the process and remember their experiences vividly afterward.[20]: 196  In this highly introspective state, patients are actively aware of ego defenses such as projection, denial, and displacement as they react to themselves and their choices.[20]: 196 

The ultimate goal of the therapy is to provide a safe, mutually compassionate context through which the profound and intense reliving of memories can be filtered through the principles of genuine psychotherapy.[93][94] Aided by the deeply introspective state attained by the patient, the therapist assists him/her in developing a new life framework or personal philosophy that recognizes individual responsibility for change.[20]: 196 

In Germany, Hanscarl Leuner designed a form of psycholytic therapy, which was developed officially but was also used by some socio-politically motivated underground therapists in the 1970s.[95][96][97]

In Switzerland, Friedericke Meckel Fisher (trained by Stanislav Grof in Breathwork and Samuel Widmer in group psychedelic sessions) practiced group psycholytic therapy mainly from the early 2000s and until 2015. Meckel Fischer developed her own system of psycholytic therapy which she conducted underground, in group weekend sessions of 15 to 19 people, using medium dosages of psychedelic substances. She added and combined into this psycholytic group work, techniques of her own modified family constellation work, cathartic body work, evocative music, and periods of sharing and feedback within the group.[98]

Other variations

Claudio Naranjo

The Chilean therapist Claudio Naranjo developed a branch of psychedelic therapy that utilized drugs like MDA, MDMA, harmaline and ibogaine.[20]

Anaclitic therapy

The term anaclitic (from the Ancient Greek "ἀνάκλιτος", anaklitos – "for reclining") refers to primitive, infantile needs and tendencies directed toward a pre-genital love object. Developed by two London psychoanalysts, Joyce Martin and Pauline McCririck, this form of treatment is similar to psycholytic approaches as it is based largely on a psychoanalytic interpretation of abreactions produced by the treatment, but it tends to focus on those experiences in which the patient re-encounters carnal feelings of emotional deprivation and frustration stemming from the infantile needs of their early childhood. As a result, the treatment was developed with the aim to directly fulfill or satisfy those repressed, agonizing cravings for love, physical contact, and other instinctual needs re-lived by the patient. Therefore, the therapist is completely engaged with the subject, as opposed to the traditional detached attitude of the psychoanalyst. With the intense emotional episodes that came with the psychedelic experience, Martin and McCririck aimed to sit in as the "mother" role who would enter into close physical contact with the patients by rocking them, giving them milk from a bottle, etc.[99]

Hypnodelic therapy

Hypnodelic therapy, as the name suggests, was developed with the goal to maximize the power of hypnotic suggestion by combining it with the psychedelic experience. After training the patient to respond to hypnosis, LSD would be administered, and during the onset phase of the drug the patient would be placed into a state of trance. Levine and Ludwig found the combination of these techniques to be more effective than the use of either of these two components separately.[99]

Public interest

A resurgence of public interest in psychedelic drug therapy in the 21st century has been driven in part by articles in The New Yorker, The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal.[56] Articles on psychedelic therapy in The New York Times have included "How Psychedelic Drugs Can Help Patients Face Death" (April 20, 2012)[100] and "My Adventures With the Trip Doctors" (May 15, 2018).[101]

Psychedelic tourism

The first article to bring attention to the uses of psychedelic drugs for mental health was titled, "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," written by Robert Gordon Wasson and published in 1957 by TIME magazine. It detailed his experience traveling to Oaxaca, Mexico and taking "magic mushrooms" (psilocybin) within the cultural practices that started the "trip" experience. Since that time there has been growing interest within the United States to travel for these unique psychedelic experiences. The market for psychedelic tourism is currently growing rapidly. While typically the vacation destinations for psychedelics are based in Central and South America there is a rise in western culture taking over their traditional practices. In the Netherlands there are psychedelic society retreats that range from $500–1200 that center on a ceremony in which tourists take magic mushrooms and trip together for around six hours.[102] There are also underground psychedelic "guides" popping up around the United States that include leaders who claim to assist people through their trip similar to shamans in other cultures. An article in The Guardian entitled "Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides" details various styles of guides that can be found within the United States.[103]

Psilocybin facilitators

As of January 1, 2023, psilocybin services facilitator training is available for individuals aged 21 and above who are Oregon residents.[104] To become a psilocybin facilitator, an individual must complete a 120-hour regulated facilitator course, after which they may guide a client through a psilocybin experience. The facilitator may not engage the client in therapy; the therapeutic sessions held before and after the psilocybin experience itself are held by a psychotherapist.[104] As of March 2023, there are currently graduates who can practice as licensed facilitators; however, no licensed service centers are yet operating.[105]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ MDMA is not a classical psychedelic but it is sometimes discussed alongside classical psychedelics due to similarities in its psychoactive and potentially therapeutic effects.[1]
  2. ↑ The Food and Drug Administration describes the designation of breakthrough therapy as "a process designed to expedite the development and review of drugs that are intended to treat a serious condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over available therapy on a clinically significant endpoint(s)."[13]
  3. ↑ Ronald Sandison first referred to the psycholytic model in 1955 in a speech to the American Psychiatric Association, and used the term 'psycholytic therapy' at the 1960 'European Symposium on Psychotherapy Under LSD-25' at Göttingen University convened by Hanscarl Leuner. In 1964 Leuner formed the European Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy.[92]

References

  1. ↑ Nutt D (2019). "Psychedelic drugs-a new era in psychiatry?". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 21 (2): 139–147. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.2/dnutt. PMC 6787540. PMID 31636488.
  2. 1 2 Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, et al. (May 2020). "Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 177 (5): 391–410. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035. PMID 32098487. S2CID 211524704.
  3. 1 2 3 Marks M, Cohen IG (October 2021). "Psychedelic therapy: a roadmap for wider acceptance and utilization". Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1669–1671. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01530-3. PMID 34608331. S2CID 238355863.
  4. ↑ Pilecki B, Luoma JB, Bathje GJ, Rhea J, Narloch VF (April 2021). "Ethical and legal issues in psychedelic harm reduction and integration therapy". Harm Reduction Journal. 18 (1): 40. doi:10.1186/s12954-021-00489-1. PMC 8028769. PMID 33827588.
  5. ↑ Nutt D, Erritzoe D, Carhart-Harris R (April 2020). "Psychedelic Psychiatry's Brave New World". Cell. 181 (1): 24–28. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.020. PMID 32243793. S2CID 214753833.
  6. 1 2 Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R (August 2008). "Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 22 (6): 603–620. doi:10.1177/0269881108093587. PMC 3056407. PMID 18593734.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Garcia-Romeu A, Richards WA (August 2018). "Current perspectives on psychedelic therapy: use of serotonergic hallucinogens in clinical interventions". International Review of Psychiatry. 30 (4): 291–316. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1486289. PMID 30422079. S2CID 53291327.
  8. 1 2 3 Bender D, Hellerstein DJ (January 2022). "Assessing the risk-benefit profile of classical psychedelics: a clinical review of second-wave psychedelic research". Psychopharmacology. 239 (6): 1907–1932. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6. PMID 35022823. S2CID 245906937.
  9. 1 2 Smith KW, Sicignano DJ, Hernandez AV, White CM (April 2022). "MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 62 (4): 463–471. doi:10.1002/jcph.1995. PMID 34708874. S2CID 240072663.
  10. ↑ Romeo B, Karila L, Martelli C, Benyamina A (October 2020). "Efficacy of psychedelic treatments on depressive symptoms: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 34 (10): 1079–1085. doi:10.1177/0269881120919957. PMID 32448048. S2CID 218873949.
  11. ↑ Schimmel N, Breeksema JJ, Smith-Apeldoorn SY, Veraart J, van den Brink W, Schoevers RA (January 2022). "Psychedelics for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and existential distress in patients with a terminal illness: a systematic review". Psychopharmacology. 239 (1): 15–33. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06027-y. PMID 34812901. S2CID 244490236.
  12. ↑ Hoskins MD, Sinnerton R, Nakamura A, Underwood JF, Slater A, Lewis C, et al. (January 2021). "Pharmacological-assisted Psychotherapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 12 (1): 1853379. doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1853379. PMC 7874936. PMID 33680344.
  13. ↑ "Breakthrough Therapy". United States Food and Drug Administration. 1 April 2018. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
  14. ↑ Vermetten E, Yehuda R (January 2020). "MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A promising novel approach to treatment". Neuropsychopharmacology. 45 (1): 231–232. doi:10.1038/s41386-019-0482-9. PMC 6879520. PMID 31455855.
  15. ↑ Guerra-Doce E (2 January 2015). "Psychoactive Substances in Prehistoric Times: Examining the Archaeological Evidence". Time and Mind. 8 (1): 91–112. doi:10.1080/1751696X.2014.993244. S2CID 161528331.
  16. ↑ "9 Mind-Altering Plants". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  17. ↑ Winkelman M (2007). "Shamanic Guidelines for Psychedelic Medicine". In Winkelman M, Roberts TB (eds.). Psychedelic medicine: new evidence for hallucinogenic substances as treatments. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-99023-7.
  18. ↑ "LSD Discovery-Albert Hofmann + Hofmann at 99 years". Skeptically.org. Archived from the original on January 8, 2009. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  19. ↑ Novak SJ (March 1997). "LSD before Leary. Sidney Cohen's critique of 1950s psychedelic drug research". Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences. 88 (1): 87–110. doi:10.1086/383628. PMID 9154737. S2CID 25764062.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB (1997). "The Psychedelic Drug Therapies". Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. A Drug Policy Classic Reprint from the Lindesmith Center, 1997. ISBN 978-0-9641568-5-2.
  21. ↑ Dyck E (June 2005). "Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 50 (7): 381–388. doi:10.1177/070674370505000703. PMID 16086535.
  22. 1 2 Leary T, Metzner R, Presnell M, Weil G, Schwitzgebel R, Kinne S (1965). "A new behavior change program using psilocybin". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 2 (2): 61–72. doi:10.1037/h0088612.
  23. ↑ Bonson KR (February 2018). "Regulation of human research with LSD in the United States (1949-1987)". Psychopharmacology. 235 (2): 591–604. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4777-4. PMID 29147729. S2CID 3368639.
  24. ↑ Organization and Coordination of Federal Drug Research and Regulatory Programs: LSD [electronic resource]. U.S. Government Publication Office. 22 May 1966. p. 63. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  25. 1 2 Dahlberg CC, Mechaneck R, Feldstein S (November 1968). "LSD research: the impact of lay publicity". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 125 (5): 685–689. doi:10.1176/ajp.125.5.685. PMID 5683460.
  26. ↑ "Drug Scheduling". www.dea.gov. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  27. ↑ Passie T (2018-04-11). "The early use of MDMA ('Ecstasy') in psychotherapy (1977–1985)". Drug Science, Policy and Law. 4: 205032451876744. doi:10.1177/2050324518767442. ISSN 2050-3245.
  28. ↑ Stolaroff M (1997). The Secret Chief: Conversations with a pioneer of the underground psychedelic therapy movement. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. ISBN 978-0-9660019-1-4.
  29. 1 2 3 "Human Psychedelic Research: A Historical And Sociological Analysis". MAPS. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  30. 1 2 Tupper KW, Wood E, Yensen R, Johnson MW (October 2015). "Psychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm". CMAJ. 187 (14): 1054–1059. doi:10.1503/cmaj.141124. PMC 4592297. PMID 26350908.
  31. ↑ Amoroso T (2015). "The Psychopharmacology of ±3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its Role in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 47 (5): 337–344. doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1094156. PMID 26579955. S2CID 37980113.
  32. ↑ Saplakoglu Y (2019-11-25). "FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression". livescience.com. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
  33. ↑ "Centre for Psychedelic Research". Imperial College London. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  34. ↑ "Centre for Psychedelic Research". Psychedelic Science Review. 2018-12-26. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  35. ↑ Anwar Y (2020-09-14). "UC Berkeley launches new center for psychedelic science and education". Berkeley News. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  36. ↑ "Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research". Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  37. ↑ Lewis T (2020-01-16). "Johns Hopkins Scientists Give Psychedelics the Serious Treatment". Scientific American. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  38. ↑ "Center to Study Psychedelics for Treatment of Depression, Anxiety". Dell Medical School. 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2022-01-15.
  39. ↑ "Mount Sinai Health System Launches Center for Psychedelic Research". Mount Sinai Health System. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  40. ↑ Booker C (2021-07-29). "$40m psychedelic medicine institute launches in Melbourne". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  41. ↑ "VIU launches collaborative psychedelic research centre". news.viu.ca. Vancouver Island University. 2023-03-02. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  42. ↑ "Harvard launches new Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture". Harvard Gazette. 2023-10-16. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  43. ↑ Barnett, Brian S.; Arakelian, Miranda; Beebe, David; Ontko, Jared; Riegal, Connor; Siu, Willie O.; Weleff, Jeremy; Pope, Harrison G. (2023-09-19). "American Psychiatrists' Opinions About Classic Hallucinogens and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A 7-Year Follow-Up Survey". Psychedelic Medicine. doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0036. ISSN 2831-4425.
  44. ↑ Barnett, Brian S.; Siu, Willie O.; Pope, Harrison G. (June 2018). "A Survey of American Psychiatrists' Attitudes Toward Classic Hallucinogens". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 206 (6): 476–480. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000828. ISSN 1539-736X. PMID 29781894.
  45. ↑ Shepherd, Tory (2023-02-03). "Australia to allow prescription of MDMA and psilocybin for treatment-resistant mental illnesses". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  46. ↑ Garcia-Romeu A, Kersgaard B, Addy PH (August 2016). "Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 24 (4): 229–268. doi:10.1037/pha0000084. PMC 5001686. PMID 27454674.
  47. ↑ Golden TL, Magsamen S, Sandu CC, Lin S, Roebuck GM, Shi KM, Barrett FS (2022). Barrett FS, Preller KH (eds.). "Effects of Setting on Psychedelic Experiences, Therapies, and Outcomes: A Rapid Scoping Review of the Literature". Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 56: 35–70. doi:10.1007/7854_2021_298. ISBN 978-3-031-12183-8. PMID 35138585. S2CID 246679011.
  48. ↑ Hartigan, Francis (2001). Bill Wilson. St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 205–208. ISBN 9780312283919.
  49. ↑ Mangini M (1998). "Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 30 (4): 381–418. doi:10.1080/02791072.1998.10399714. PMID 9924844.
  50. ↑ Krebs TS, Johansen PØ (July 2012). "Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 26 (7): 994–1002. doi:10.1177/0269881112439253. PMID 22406913. S2CID 10677273.
  51. 1 2 Köck P, Froelich K, Walter M, Lang U, Dürsteler KM (July 2022). "A systematic literature review of clinical trials and therapeutic applications of ibogaine". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 138: 108717. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108717. PMID 35012793. S2CID 245597268.
  52. ↑ Heink A, Katsikas S, Lange-Altman T (2017-05-27). "Examination of the Phenomenology of the Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role of Altered States of Consciousness and Psychedelic Experiences". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 49 (3): 201–208. doi:10.1080/02791072.2017.1290855. PMID 28266890. S2CID 25328910.
  53. ↑ dos Santos RG, Bouso JC, Hallak JE (April 2017). "The antiaddictive effects of ibogaine: A systematic literature review of human studies". Journal of Psychedelic Studies. 1 (1): 20–28. doi:10.1556/2054.01.2016.001. ISSN 2559-9283.
  54. ↑ Litjens RP, Brunt TM (2016-04-20). "How toxic is ibogaine?". Clinical Toxicology. 54 (4): 297–302. doi:10.3109/15563650.2016.1138226. PMID 26807959. S2CID 7026570.
  55. ↑ Sharma R, Batchelor R, Sin J (March 2023). "Psychedelic Treatments for Substance Use Disorder and Substance Misuse: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 55 (5): 612–630. doi:10.1080/02791072.2023.2190319. PMID 36933948. S2CID 257623319.
  56. 1 2 3 Byock I (April 2018). "Taking Psychedelics Seriously". Journal of Palliative Medicine. 21 (4): 417–421. doi:10.1089/jpm.2017.0684. PMC 5867510. PMID 29356590.
  57. ↑ Boston P, Bruce A, Schreiber R (March 2011). "Existential suffering in the palliative care setting: an integrated literature review". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 41 (3): 604–618. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.05.010. PMID 21145202.
  58. ↑ Moreton SG, Szalla L, Menzies RE, Arena AF (January 2020). "Embedding existential psychology within psychedelic science: reduced death anxiety as a mediator of the therapeutic effects of psychedelics". Psychopharmacology. 237 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05391-0. PMID 31784805. S2CID 208337549.
  59. 1 2 Nichols DE, Johnson MW, Nichols CD (February 2017). "Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 101 (2): 209–219. doi:10.1002/cpt.557. PMID 28019026. S2CID 25861735.
  60. 1 2 3 Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, et al. (December 2016). "Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 30 (12): 1181–1197. doi:10.1177/0269881116675513. PMC 5367557. PMID 27909165.
  61. 1 2 3 4 Ross S, Bossis A, Guss J, Agin-Liebes G, Malone T, Cohen B, et al. (December 2016). "Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 30 (12): 1165–1180. doi:10.1177/0269881116675512. PMC 5367551. PMID 27909164.
  62. ↑ Barrett FS, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR (November 2015). "Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (11): 1182–1190. doi:10.1177/0269881115609019. PMC 5203697. PMID 26442957.
  63. ↑ Bauereiß N, Obermaier S, Özünal SE, Baumeister H (November 2018). "Effects of existential interventions on spiritual, psychological, and physical well-being in adult patients with cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Psycho-Oncology. 27 (11): 2531–2545. doi:10.1002/pon.4829. PMID 29958339. S2CID 49613924.
  64. 1 2 Boston P, Bruce A, Schreiber R (March 2011). "Existential suffering in the palliative care setting: an integrated literature review". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 41 (3): 604–618. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.05.010. PMID 21145202.
  65. ↑ Breeksema JJ, Niemeijer AR, Krediet E, Vermetten E, Schoevers RA (September 2020). "Psychedelic Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Patient Experiences in Qualitative Studies". CNS Drugs. 34 (9): 925–946. doi:10.1007/s40263-020-00748-y. PMC 7447679. PMID 32803732.
  66. ↑ "A Phase 3 Program of MDMA-Assisted Therapy for the Treatment of Severe Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)". MAPS. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  67. ↑ Thal SB, Lommen MJ (2018). "Current Perspective on MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. 48 (2): 99–108. doi:10.1007/s10879-017-9379-2. PMC 5917000. PMID 29720767.
  68. ↑ "Phase 3 Trial Program: MDMA-Assisted Therapy for PTSD". Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies - MAPS. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
  69. 1 2 Smith KW, Sicignano DJ, Hernandez AV, White CM (April 2022). "MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 62 (4): 463–471. doi:10.1002/jcph.1995. PMID 34708874. S2CID 240072663.
  70. ↑ Muthukumaraswamy SD, Forsyth A, Lumley T (September 2021). "Blinding and expectancy confounds in psychedelic randomized controlled trials". Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology. 14 (9): 1133–1152. doi:10.1080/17512433.2021.1933434. PMID 34038314. S2CID 235215630.
  71. ↑ Burke MJ, Blumberger DM (October 2021). "Caution at psychiatry's psychedelic frontier". Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1687–1688. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01524-1. PMID 34635858. S2CID 238635462.
  72. ↑ Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360.
  73. ↑ Bahr R, Lopez A, Rey JA (June 2019). "Intranasal Esketamine (SpravatoTM) for Use in Treatment-Resistant Depression In Conjunction With an Oral Antidepressant". P & T. 44 (6): 340–375. PMC 6534172. PMID 31160868.
  74. ↑ "FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression". Livescience.com. 25 November 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  75. ↑ "Breakthrough Therapy". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 3 November 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
  76. ↑ Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G (2019). "Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness". Current Neuropharmacology. 17 (2): 108–128. doi:10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902. PMC 6343205. PMID 29366418.
  77. ↑ Kisely S, Connor M, Somogyi AA, Siskind D (March 2023). "A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the effect of psilocybin and methylenedioxymethamphetamine on mental, behavioural or developmental disorders". Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 57 (3): 362–378. doi:10.1177/00048674221083868. PMID 35285280. S2CID 247421768. In conclusion, MDMA and psilocybin show potential as therapeutic agents in highly selected populations when administered in closely supervised settings with intensive support. Evidence appears strongest for MDMA. By contrast, randomised findings for psilocybin are largely limited to short-term follow-up data prior to cross-over
  78. 1 2 Zeifman RJ, Yu D, Singhal N, Wang G, Nayak SM, Weissman CR (January 2022). "Decreases in Suicidality Following Psychedelic Therapy: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data Across Clinical Trials". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 83 (2). doi:10.4088/JCP.21r14057. PMID 35044730. S2CID 245949616.
  79. ↑ Hendricks PS, Crawford MS, Cropsey KL, Copes H, Sweat NW, Walsh Z, Pavela G (January 2018). "The relationships of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior in the United States adult population". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1177/0269881117735685. PMID 29039233. S2CID 32430532.
  80. ↑ "Study suggests psychedelic drugs could reduce criminal behavior". UAB News. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
  81. ↑ Hendricks PS, Clark CB, Johnson MW, Fontaine KR, Cropsey KL (January 2014). "Hallucinogen use predicts reduced recidivism among substance-involved offenders under community corrections supervision". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (1): 62–66. doi:10.1177/0269881113513851. PMID 24399338. S2CID 22654131.
  82. ↑ Dolan, Eric W. (2018-06-08). "Men who have used psychedelics are roughly half as likely to commit intimate partner violence". PsyPost. Retrieved 2023-10-10.
  83. ↑ Jones GM, Nock MK (January 2022). "Psilocybin use is associated with lowered odds of crime arrests in US adults: A replication and extension". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 36 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1177/02698811211058933. PMID 35090364. S2CID 246387248.
  84. ↑ "Medical Contraindications to "Classic" Psychedelic Use". psychedelics.ucsf.edu. Retrieved 2023-01-30.
  85. ↑ Frecska E (2007). "Therapeutic guidelines: dangers and contra-indications in therapeutic applications of hallucinogens". Psychedelic Medicine. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.2364.8888.
  86. ↑ Smith DG (11 February 2023). "Psychedelics are a promising therapy, but they can be dangerous for some". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  87. ↑ Eisner B (1997). "Set, setting, and matrix". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 29 (2): 213–216. doi:10.1080/02791072.1997.10400190. PMID 9250949.
  88. ↑ Michael P (15 May 2018). How to Change Your Mind. Penguin. p. 164. ISBN 9780525558941. But though this mode of therapy would become closely identified with Osmond and Hoffer, they themselves credited someone else for critical elements of its design, a man of considerable mystery with no formal training as a scientist or therapist: Al Hubbard. A treatment space decorated to feel more like a home than a hospital came to be known as a Hubbard Room, and at least one early psychedelic researcher told me that this whole therapeutic regime, which is now the norm, should by all rights be known as "the Hubbard method." Yet Al Hubbard, a.k.a. "Captain Trips" and "the Johnny Appleseed of LSD," is not the kind of intellectual forebear anyone doing serious psychedelic science today is eager to acknowledge, much less celebrate.
  89. ↑ Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, et al. (May 2020). "Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 177 (5): 391–410. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035. PMID 32098487. S2CID 211524704.
  90. ↑ Van Eyghen H (2023). "Psychedelics and the Entropic Brain Beyond the Self". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 33 (4): 277–293. doi:10.1080/10508619.2023.2192078.
  91. ↑ Letheby C (2020). Philosophy of psychedelics. Oxford University Press.
  92. ↑ Sessa B (2016). "The History of Psychedelics in Medicine". In von Heyden M, Jungaberle H, Majić T (eds.). Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen. Springer Reference Psychologie. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 1–26. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_96-1. ISBN 978-3-642-55214-4. S2CID 151782491.
  93. ↑ Roberts G (2019-03-18). "Climax: Cinema Psychotherapy". Medium. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  94. ↑ Passie T, Guss J, Krähenmann R (2022-12-02). "Lower-dose psycholytic therapy - A neglected approach". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13: 1020505. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020505. PMC 9755513. PMID 36532196.
  95. ↑ Leuner H (September 1972). "Standpunkte". Kursbuch 29. Das Elend mit der Psyche. II Psychoanalyse (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  96. ↑ Leuner H. "Alternative Szene" (in German).
  97. ↑ Jungaberle H, Gasser P, Weinhold J, Verres R (2008). Therapie mit psychoaktiven Substanzen : Praxis und Kritik der Psychotherapie mit LSD, Psilocybin und MDMA (in German) (1st ed.). Bern: Hans Huber. ISBN 978-3-456-84606-4.
  98. ↑ Meckel Fischer F (2015). Therapy with Substance : Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century (1st ed.). Great Britain: Aeon Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-913274-30-6.
  99. 1 2 Grof S (2001). LSD Psychotherapy (3rd ed.). MAPS. ISBN 978-0-9660019-4-5.
  100. ↑ Slater L (2012-04-20). "How Psychedelic Drugs Can Help Patients Face Death". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  101. ↑ Pollan M (2018-05-15). "My Adventures With the Trip Doctors". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  102. ↑ "Psychedelic tourism is a niche but growing market". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  103. ↑ Dunne C (2018-12-06). "Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  104. 1 2 "Oregon's Legal Framework for Psilocybin Services | ATMA". ATMA Journey Centers. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  105. ↑ "As Oregon's first psilocybin facilitators graduate, an untested industry awaits". oregonlive. 2023-03-14. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.