RL10
An RL10A-4 engine in London's Science Museum
Country of originUnited States of America
First flight1962 (RL10A-1)
ManufacturerAerojet Rocketdyne
ApplicationUpper stage engine
Associated LVAtlas
Saturn I
Titan IIIE
Titan IV
Delta III
Delta IV
DC-X (canceled)
Space Shuttle (canceled)
Space Launch System
OmegA (canceled)
Vulcan
StatusIn production
Liquid-fuel engine
PropellantLiquid oxygen / liquid hydrogen
Mixture ratio5.88:1
CycleExpander cycle
Configuration
Nozzle ratio84:1 or 280:1
Performance
Thrust, vacuum110.1 kN (24,800 lbf)
Specific impulse, vacuum465.5 seconds (4.565 km/s)
Dimensions
Length4.15 m (13.6 ft) w/ nozzle extended
Diameter2.15 m (7 ft 1 in)
Dry weight301 kg (664 lb)
Used in
Centaur, DCSS, S-IV
References
References[1]
NotesPerformance values and dimensions are for RL10B-2.

The RL10 is a liquid-fuel cryogenic rocket engine built in the United States by Aerojet Rocketdyne that burns cryogenic liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants. Modern versions produce up to 110 kN (24,729 lbf) of thrust per engine in vacuum. Three RL10 versions are in production for the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V and the DCSS of the Delta IV. Three more versions are in development for the Exploration Upper Stage of the Space Launch System and the Centaur V of the Vulcan rocket.[2]

The expander cycle that the engine uses drives the turbopump with waste heat absorbed by the engine combustion chamber, throat, and nozzle. This, combined with the hydrogen fuel, leads to very high specific impulses (Isp) in the range of 373 to 470 s (3.66–4.61 km/s) in a vacuum. Mass ranges from 131 to 317 kg (289–699 lb) depending on the version of the engine.[3][4]

History

The RL10 was the first liquid hydrogen rocket engine to be built in the United States, with development of the engine by Marshall Space Flight Center and Pratt & Whitney beginning in the 1950s. The RL10 was originally developed as a throttleable engine for the USAF Lunex lunar lander.[5]

The RL10 was first tested on the ground in 1959, at Pratt & Whitney's Florida Research and Development Center in West Palm Beach, Florida.[6][7] The first successful flight took place on November 27, 1963.[8][9] For that launch, two RL10A-3 engines powered the Centaur upper stage of an Atlas launch vehicle. The launch was used to conduct a heavily instrumented performance and structural integrity test of the vehicle.[10]

Multiple versions of this engine have been flown. The S-IV of the Saturn I used a cluster of six RL10A-3S, a version which was modified for installation on the Saturn[11] and the Titan program included Centaur D-1T upper stages powered by two RL10A-3-3 Engines.[11][12]

Four modified RL10A-5 engines were used in the McDonnell Douglas DC-X.[13]

A flaw in the brazing of an RL10B-2 combustion chamber was identified as the cause of failure for the 4 May 1999 Delta III launch carrying the Orion-3 communications satellite.[14]

The DIRECT version 3.0 proposal to replace Ares I and Ares V with a family of rockets sharing a common core stage recommended the RL10 for the second stage of the J-246 and J-247 launch vehicles.[15] Up to seven RL10 engines would have been used in the proposed Jupiter Upper Stage, serving an equivalent role to the Space Launch System Exploration Upper Stage.

Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine

The CECE at partial throttle

In the early 2000s, NASA contracted with Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne to develop the Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine (CECE) demonstrator. CECE was intended to lead to RL10 engines capable of deep throttling.[16] In 2007, its operability (with some "chugging") was demonstrated at 11:1 throttle ratios.[17] In 2009, NASA reported successfully throttling from 104 percent thrust to eight percent thrust, a record for an expander cycle engine of this type. Chugging was eliminated by injector and propellant feed system modifications that control the pressure, temperature and flow of propellants.[18] In 2010, the throttling range was expanded further to a 17.6:1 ratio, throttling from 104% to 5.9% power.[19]

Early 2010s possible successor

In 2012 NASA joined with the US Air Force (USAF) to study next-generation upper stage propulsion, formalizing the agencies' joint interests in a new upper stage engine to replace the Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10.

"We know the list price on an RL10. If you look at cost over time, a very large portion of the unit cost of the EELVs is attributable to the propulsion systems, and the RL10 is a very old engine, and there's a lot of craftwork associated with its manufacture. ... That's what this study will figure out, is it worthwhile to build an RL10 replacement?"

— Dale Thomas, Associated Director Technical, Marshall Space Flight Center[20]

From the study, NASA hoped to find a less expensive RL10-class engine for the upper stage of the Space Launch System (SLS).[20][21]

USAF hoped to replace the Rocketdyne RL10 engines used on the upper stages of the Lockheed Martin Atlas V and the Boeing Delta IV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles (EELV) that were the primary methods of putting US government satellites into space.[20] A related requirements study was conducted at the same time under the Affordable Upper Stage Engine Program (AUSEP).[21]

Improvements

The RL10 has evolved over the years. The RL10B-2 that was used on the DCSS had improved performance, an extendable carbon-carbon nozzle, electro-mechanical gimbaling for reduced weight and increased reliability, and a specific impulse of 465.5 seconds (4.565 km/s).[22][23]

As of 2016, Aerojet Rocketdyne was working toward incorporating additive manufacturing into the RL10 construction process. The company conducted full-scale, hot-fire tests on an engine with a printed main injector in March 2016,[24] and on an engine with a printed thrust chamber assembly in April 2017.[25]

Current applications for the RL10

  • Atlas V Centaur (rocket stage): The single engine centaur (SEC) version uses the RL10C-1,[2] while the dual engine centaur (DEC) version retains the smaller RL10A-4-2.[26] An Atlas V mission (SBIRS-5) marked the first use of the RL10C-1-1 version. The mission was successful but observed unexpected vibration, and further use of the RL10C-1-1 model is on hold until the problem is better understood.[27] The engine was used again successfully on SBIRS-6.
  • Delta Cryogenic Second Stage: The current DCSS has an RL10C-2-1 with an extensible nozzle.[2][28][29]
  • Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage : The Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage or ICPS is used for the SLS and is similar to the DCSS, except that the engine is an RL10B-2 and it is adapted to fit on top of the 8.4 meter diameter core stage with four RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engines.
  • Vulcan Centaur's Centaur V stage: On May 11, 2018, United Launch Alliance (ULA) announced that the RL10 upper stage engine had been selected for ULA's next-generation Vulcan Centaur rocket following a competitive procurement process.[30] Centaur V will normally use the RL10C-1-1,[2] but on Vulcan Centaur Heavy the RL10C-X will be used.[31] Vulcan finally flew on its successful maiden flight on January 8, 2024.[32]

Engines in development

Advanced Cryogenic Evolved Stage

As of 2009, an enhanced version of the RL10 was proposed to power the Advanced Cryogenic Evolved Stage (ACES), a long-duration, low-boiloff extension of existing ULA Centaur and Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) technology for the Vulcan launch vehicle.[36] Long-duration ACES technology is intended to support geosynchronous, cislunar, and interplanetary missions. Another possible application is as in-space propellant depots in LEO or at L2 that could be used as way-stations for other rockets to stop and refuel on the way to beyond-LEO or interplanetary missions. Cleanup of space debris was also proposed.[37]

Table of versions

Version  Status First flight Dry mass Thrust Isp (ve), vac. Length Diameter T:W O:F Expansion ratio Chamber pressure Burn time Associated stage Notes
RL10A-1 Retired 1962 131 kg (289 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf) 425 s (4.17 km/s) 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 52:1 5:1 40:1 20.7 bar (2,070 kPa) 430 s Centaur A Prototype
[11][26][38][39]
RL10A-3C Retired 1963 131 kg (289 lb) 65.6 kN (14,700 lbf) 444 s (4.35 km/s) 2.49 m (8 ft 2 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 51:1 5:1 57:1 32.75 bar (3,275 kPa) 470 s Centaur B/C/D/E [40]
RL10A-3S Retired 1964 134 kg (296 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf) 427 s (4.19 km/s) 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) 51:1 5:1 40:1 20.7 bar (2,070 kPa) S-IV [11][8]
RL10A-4 Retired 1992 168 kg (370 lb) 92.5 kN (20,800 lbf) 449 s (4.40 km/s) 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) 1.17 m (3 ft 10 in) 56:1 5.5:1 84:1 39.8 bar (3,980 kPa) 392 s Centaur IIA [11][41]
RL10A-5 Retired 1993 143 kg (315 lb) 64.7 kN (14,500 lbf) 373 s (3.66 km/s) 1.07 m (3 ft 6 in) 1.02 m (3 ft 4 in) 46:1 6:1 4:1 39.8 bar (3,980 kPa) 127 s DC-X [11][42]
RL10B-2 Active 1998 277 kg (611 lb) 110.1 kN (24,750 lbf) 465.5 s (4.565 km/s) 2.2 m

(7 ft 2 in) Extended: 4.15 m (13 ft 7.5 in)

 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) 40:1 5.88:1 280:1 44.12 bar (4,412 kPa) 5-m: 1,125 s
4-m: 700 s		 Delta Cryogenic Second Stage,
Interim Cyrogenic Propulsion Stage		 [1][43]
RL10A-4-1 Retired 2000 167 kg (368 lb) 99.1 kN (22,300 lbf) 451 s (4.42 km/s) 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 61:1 84:1 42 bar (4,200 kPa) 740 s Centaur IIIA [11][44]
RL10A-4-2 Active 2002 168 kg (370 lb) 99.1 kN (22,300 lbf) 451 s (4.42 km/s) 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) 1.17 m (3 ft 10 in) 61:1 84:1 42 bar (4,200 kPa) 740 s Centaur IIIB
Centaur SEC
Centaur DEC		 [11][45][46]
RL10B-X Cancelled — 317 kg (699 lb) 93.4 kN (21,000 lbf) 470 s (4.6 km/s) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 30:1 250:1 408 s Centaur B-X [47]
CECE Demonstrator project — 160 kg (350 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf), throttle to 5–10% >445 s (4.36 km/s) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 43:1 [48][49]
RL10C-1 Active 2014 190 kg (420 lb) 101.8 kN (22,890 lbf) 449.7 s (4.410 km/s) 2.12 m (6 ft 11 in) 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) 57:1 5.5:1 130:1 Centaur SEC
Centaur DEC		 [50][51][52][46]
RL10C-1-1 Active 2021 188 kg (415 lb) 106 kN (23,825 lbF) 453.8 s 2.46 m (8 ft 0.7 in) 1.57 m (4 ft 9 in) 57:1 5.5:1 155:1 Centaur V [11][2]
RL10C-2 Delivered, not yet flown 2024 109.9 kN (24,750 lbF) 465.5 s 4.15 m (13 ft 8 in) 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) 37:1 5.88:1 280:1 Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage Conversion of C-3[53]
RL10C-2-1 Active 2022 301 kg (664 lb) 109.9 kN (24,750 lbF) 465.5 s 4.15 m (13 ft 8 in) 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) 37:1 5.88:1 280:1 Delta Cryogenic Second Stage [54][55]
RL10C-3 Delivered, not yet flown 2026 230 kg (508 lb) 108 kN (24,340 lbF) 460.1 s 3.15 m (10 ft 4.3 in) 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) 48:1 5.7:1 215:1 Exploration Upper Stage [11][2][53]
RL10C-5-1 Cancelled — 188 kg (415 lb) 106 kN (23,825 lbF) 453.8 s 2.46 m (8 ft 0.7 in) 1.57 m (4 ft 9 in) 57:1 5.5:1 OmegA [2][35]
RL10C-X In development 231 kg (510 lb) 107.29 kN (24,120 lbF) 460.9 s 3.31 m (130.4 in) 1.87 m (73.7 in) 47.29:1 5.5:1 Centaur V Additive manufacturing [56][57]

Partial specifications

RL10A information and overview
RL10 engine undergoing testing at NASA

All versions

RL10A

  • Thrust (altitude): 15,000 lbf (66.7 kN)[38]
  • Specific impulse: 433 seconds (4.25 km/s)
  • Engine weight, dry: 298 lb (135 kg)
  • Height: 68 in (1.73 m)
  • Diameter: 39 in (0.99 m)
  • Nozzle expansion ratio: 40 to 1
  • Propellant flow: 35 lb/s (16 kg/s)
  • Vehicle application: Saturn I, S-IV 2nd stage, 6 engines
  • Vehicle application: Centaur upper stage, 2 engines

RL10B-2

Second stage of a Delta IV Medium rocket featuring an RL10B-2 engine
  • Thrust (altitude): 24,750 lbf (110.1 kN)[23]
  • Specific impulse: 465.5 seconds (4.565 km/s)[23]
  • Engine weight, dry: 664 lb (301.2 kg)[23]
  • Height: 163.5 in (4.14 m)[23]
  • Diameter: 84.5 in (2.21 m)[23]
  • Expansion ratio: 280 to 1
  • Mixture ratio: 5.88 to 1 oxygen:hydrogen mass ratio[23]
  • Propellant flow: fuel, 7.72 lb/s (3.5 kg/s); oxidizer 45.42 lb/s (20.6 kg/s)[23]
  • Vehicle application: Delta III, Delta IV second stage (1 engine)

Engines on display

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10B-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on February 4, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 Propulsion System" (PDF). Aerojet Rocketdyne. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 30, 2022.
  3. ↑ "RL-10C". www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
  4. ↑ "RL-10A-1". www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
  5. ↑ Wade, Mark. "Encyclopedia Astronautica—Lunex Project page". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on August 31, 2006.
  6. ↑ Connors, p 319
  7. ↑ "Centaur". Gunter's Space Pages.
  8. 1 2 Sutton, George (2005). History of liquid propellant rocket engines. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 1-56347-649-5.
  9. ↑ "Renowned Rocket Engine Celebrates 40 Years of Flight". Pratt & Whitney. November 24, 2003. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011.
  10. ↑ "Atlas Centaur 2". National Space Science Data Center. NASA.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Brügge, Norbert. "Evolution of Pratt & Whitney's cryogenic rocket engine RL-10". Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  12. ↑ "Titan 3E/Centaur D-1T Systems Summary REPORT NO. CASD·LVP73-007" (PDF). Convair & Martin Marietta Aerospace. September 1, 1973. pp. 2–4. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  13. ↑ Wade, Mark. "DCX". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on December 28, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
  14. ↑ "Delta 269 (Delta III) Investigation Report" (PDF). Boeing. August 16, 2000. MDC 99H0047A. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2001.
  15. ↑ "Jupiter Launch Vehicle – Technical Performance Summaries". Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved July 18, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  16. ↑ "Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine (CECE)". United Technologies Corporation. Archived from the original on March 4, 2012.
  17. ↑ "Throttling Back to the Moon". NASA. July 16, 2007. Archived from the original on April 2, 2010.
  18. ↑ "NASA Tests Engine Technology for Landing Astronauts on the Moon". NASA. January 14, 2009.
  19. ↑ Giuliano, Victor (July 25, 2010). "CECE: Expanding the Envelope of Deep Throttling Technology in Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen Rocket Engines for NASA Exploration Missions" (PDF). NASA Technical Reports Server.
  20. 1 2 3 Roseberg, Zach (April 12, 2012). "NASA, US Air Force to study joint rocket engine". Flight Global. Retrieved June 1, 2012.
  21. 1 2 Newton, Kimberly (April 12, 2012). "NASA Partners With U.S. Air Force to Study Common Rocket Propulsion Challenges". NASA. Archived from the original on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
  22. ↑ "RL-10B-2". astronautix.com. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "RL10B-2" (PDF). Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2012. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
  24. ↑ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Successfully Tests Complex 3-D Printed Injector in World's Most Reliable Upper Stage Rocket Engine" (Press release). Aerojet Rocketdyne. March 7, 2016. Retrieved April 20, 2017.
  25. ↑ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Achieves 3-D Printing Milestone with Successful Testing of Full-Scale RL10 Copper Thrust Chamber Assembly" (Press release). Aerojet Rocketdyne. April 3, 2017. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
  26. 1 2 Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  27. ↑ "ULA delays further use of enhanced upper-stage engine pending studies". June 23, 2021.
  28. ↑ "ULA Vulcan Launch Vehicle (as announced/built) – General Discussion Thread 3". forum.nasaspaceflight.com. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
  29. ↑ "Delta IV Data Sheet". www.spacelaunchreport.com. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
  30. ↑ "United Launch Alliance Selects Aerojet Rocketdyne's RL10 Engine". ULA. May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 13, 2018.
  31. ↑ "Vulcan Cutaway Poster" (PDF). United Launch Alliance. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
  32. ↑ Belam, Martin (January 8, 2024). "Nasa Peregrine 1 launch: Vulcan Centaur rocket carrying Nasa moon lander lifts off in Florida – live updates". the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  33. ↑ Sloss, Philip (March 4, 2021). "NASA, Boeing looking to begin SLS Exploration Upper Stage manufacturing in 2021". NASASpaceflight. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
  34. ↑ "RL-10 Selected for OmegA Rocket". Aerojet Rocketdyne. April 16, 2018. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
  35. 1 2 "Northrop Grumman to terminate OmegA rocket program". SpaceNews. September 9, 2020. Retrieved November 23, 2020.
  36. ↑ Kutter, Bernard F.; Zegler, Frank; Barr, Jon; Bulk, Tim; Pitchford, Brian (2009). "Robust Lunar Exploration Using an Efficient Lunar Lander Derived from Existing Upper Stages" (PDF). AIAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
  37. ↑ Zegler, Frank; Bernard Kutter (September 2, 2010). "Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture" (PDF). AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition. AIAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2011. ACES design conceptualization has been underway at ULA for many years. It leverages design features of both the Centaur and Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) upper stages and intends to supplement and perhaps replace these stages in the future. ...
  38. 1 2 Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). "Unconventional Cryogenics: RL-10 and J-2". Stages to Saturn; A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. Washington, D.C.: NASA History Office. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  39. ↑ "Atlas Centaur". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved February 29, 2012.
  40. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-3". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on December 6, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  41. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  42. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-5". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  43. ↑ "Delta IV Launch Services User's Guide, June 2013" (PDF). ULA Launch. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
  44. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 17, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  45. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on January 30, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  46. 1 2 "RL10 Engine". Aerojet Rocketdyne. Archived from the original on April 30, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  47. ↑ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10B-X". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  48. ↑ "Commons Extensible Cryogenic Engine". Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. Archived from the original on March 4, 2012. Retrieved February 28, 2012.
  49. ↑ "Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine – Aerojet Rocketdyne". www.rocket.com. Archived from the original on November 12, 2014. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
  50. ↑ "Cryogenic Propulsion Stage" (PDF). NASA. August 5, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
  51. ↑ "Atlas-V with RL10C powered Centaur". forum.nasaspaceflight.com. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
  52. ↑ "Evolution of Pratt & Whitney's cryogenic rocket engine RL-10". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 20, 2016.
  53. 1 2 "NASA'S SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM BEGINS MOVING TO THE LAUNCH SITE" (PDF). NASA. April 15, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 13, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2023.
  54. ↑ "RL10 Engine | Aerojet Rocketdyne". www.rocket.com. Retrieved June 19, 2020.
  55. ↑ Graham, William (September 24, 2022). "Last West Coast Delta IV Heavy launches with NROL-91". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved August 29, 2023.
  56. ↑ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Secures Its Largest RL10 Engine Contract From ULA". www.aerojetrocketdyne.com. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
  57. ↑ "RL10 Engine | Aerojet Rocketdyne". Rocket.com. Retrieved May 7, 2022.
  58. ↑ Sutton, A. M.; Peery, S. D.; Minick, A. B. (January 1998). "50K expander cycle engine demonstration" (PDF). AIP Conference Proceedings. 420: 1062–1065. doi:10.1063/1.54719. Archived from the original on April 8, 2013.
  59. ↑ "Pratt & Whitney RL10A-1 Rocket Engine". New England Air Museum. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014.
  60. 1 2 "Photos of Rocket Engines". Historic Spacecraft. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
  61. ↑ Colaguori, Nancy; Kidder, Bryan (November 3, 2006). "Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Donates Model of Legendary Rl10 Rocket Engine to Southern University" (Press release). Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. PR Newswire. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014.
  62. ↑ "American Space Museum & Space Walk of Fame". www.facebook.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2022. Retrieved April 8, 2018.

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