Sir

Simon Baron-Cohen

FBA FBPsS FMedSci
Baron-Cohen in 2011
Born
Simon Philip Baron-Cohen

(1958-08-15) 15 August 1958
Hampstead, London, England
Education
Known forAutism research
Spouse
Bridget Lindley
​
​
(m. 1987; died 2016)​
AwardsKanner-Asperger Medal (2013)
Scientific career
Fields
InstitutionsUniversity of Cambridge
ThesisSocial Cognition and Pretend-Play in Autism (1985)
Doctoral advisorUta Frith

Sir Simon Philip Baron-Cohen FBA FBPsS FMedSci (born 15 August 1958)[1] is a British clinical psychologist and professor of developmental psychopathology at the University of Cambridge. He is the director of the university's Autism Research Centre and a Fellow of Trinity College.

In 1985, Baron-Cohen formulated the mindblindness theory of autism, the evidence for which he collated and published in 1995. In 1997, he formulated the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism, the key test of which was published in 2015. In 2003, he formulated the empathising-systemising (E-S) theory of autism and typical sex differences, the key test of which was published in 2018.

He has also made major contributions to research on autism prevalence and screening, autism genetics, autism neuroimaging, autism and vulnerability, autism intervention and synaesthesia. Baron-Cohen was knighted in the 2021 New Year Honours for services to autism.

Early life and education

Baron-Cohen was born into a middle-class Jewish family in London, the second son of Judith and Hyman Vivian Baron-Cohen.[2][3][4]

He completed a BA in human sciences at New College, Oxford, and an MPhil in clinical psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London. He received a PhD in psychology at University College London;[5] his doctoral research was in collaboration with his supervisor Uta Frith.[6]

Research

In 1997, Baron-Cohen developed the "empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory" which states that humans may be classified on the basis of their scores along two dimensions (empathizing and systemizing). The E-S theory argues that typical females on average score higher on empathizing relative to systemizing (they are more likely to have a brain of type E), and typical males on average score higher on systemizing relative to empathizing (they are more likely to have a brain of type S). Autistic people are predicted to score as an extreme of the typical male (they are more likely to have a brain of type S or extreme type S).[7][8]

Baron-Cohen's "assortative mating theory" states that if individuals with a "systemizing" focus or "type S" brain are selecting each other as mates, they are more likely to have children with autism.[8][9] This has been supported in a population study in Eindhoven, where autism rates are twice as high in that city that is an IT hub, compared to other Dutch cities.[10]

In 2001, he developed the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), a set of fifty questions that can be used to help determine whether or not an adult exhibits symptoms of autism.[11] The AQ has subsequently been used in hundreds of studies including one study of half a million people, showing robust sex differences and higher scores in those who work in STEM.[7][12]

Prenatal neuroendocrinology

Baron-Cohen's work in E-S theory led him to investigate whether higher levels of prenatal testosterone explain the increased rate of autism among males.[8] His prenatal sex steroid theory of autism gained additional support in 2015 and 2019 in finding elevated prenatal androgens and estrogens are associated with autism.[13][14]

In his 2004 book Prenatal Testosterone in Mind (MIT Press), Baron-Cohen put forward the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism.[15] He proposed this theory to understand why autism is more common in males. Using the Cambridge Child Development Project that he established in 1997, a longitudinal study studying children of 600 women who had undergone amniocentesis in pregnancy, he followed these children postnatally. This study demonstrated, for the first time in humans, how normative variation in amniotic prenatal testosterone levels correlates with individual differences in typical postnatal brain and behavioral development. His team discovered that in typical children, amount of eye contact, rate of vocabulary development, quality of social relationships, theory of mind performance, and scores on the empathy quotient are all inversely correlated with prenatal testosterone levels. In contrast, he found that scores on the embedded figures test (of attention to detail), on the systemizing quotient (SQ), measures of narrow interests, and number of autistic traits are positively correlated with prenatal testosterone levels.[16] Within this study his team conducted the first human neuroimaging studies of brain grey matter regional volumes and brain activity associated with prenatal testosterone.[17] Other clues for the theory came from Baron-Cohen's postnatal hormonal studies which found that autistic adults have elevated circulating androgens in serum[18] and that the autistic brain in women is ‘masculinized’ in both grey and white matter brain volume.[19] An independent animal model by Xu et al. (2015, Physiology and Behavior, 138, 13–20) showed that elevated prenatal testosterone during pregnancy leads to reduced social interest in the offspring. Baron-Cohen's group also studied the rate of autism in offspring of mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a medical condition caused by elevated prenatal testosterone. He found that in women with PCOS, the odds of having a child with autism are significantly increased.[20] This has been replicated in three other countries (Sweden, Finland, and Israel) and is in line with the finding that mothers of autistic children themselves have elevated sex steroid hormones.[21][22] But to really test the theory, Baron-Cohen needed a much larger sample than his Cambridge Child Development Project, since autism only occurs in 1% of the population. So, in 2015, he set up a collaboration with the Danish Biobank which has stored over 20 thousand amniotic fluid samples which he linked to later diagnosis of autism via the Danish Psychiatric Register. He tested the prenatal androgens and found that children later diagnosed as autistic were exposed to elevated levels of prenatal testosterone, and the Δ4 sex steroid precursors to prenatal testosterone.[14] In 2019 he tested the same cohort's levels of exposure to prenatal estrogens and again found these were elevated in pregnancies that resulted in autism.[13] These novel studies provide evidence of the role of prenatal hormones, interacting with genetic predisposition, in the cause of autism.

Developmental social cognitive neuroscience

While a member of the Cognitive Development Unit (CDU) in London in 1985, to explain the social-communication deficits in autism, Baron-Cohen and his colleagues Frith and Alan Leslie formulated the "theory of mind" (ToM) hypothesis. ToM (also known as "cognitive empathy") is the brain's partially innate mechanism for rapidly making sense of social behavior by effortlessly attributing mental states to others, enabling behavioral prediction and social communication skills.[23][24] They confirmed this using the false belief test, showing that a typical four-year-old child can infer another person's belief that is different to their own, while autistic children on average are impaired in this ability.[24] Baron-Cohen's 1995 book Mindblindness summarized his subsequent experiments in ToM and its impairment in autism. He went on to show that children with autism are blind to the mentalistic significance of the eyes and show deficits in advanced ToM, measured by the "reading the mind in the eyes test" (or "eyes test") that he designed.[25] He conducted the first neuroimaging study of ToM in typical and autistic adults, and studied patients demonstrating lesions in the orbito- and medial-prefrontal cortex and amygdala can impair ToM.[26] He also reported the first evidence of atypical amygdala function in autism during ToM.[27] In 2017, his team studied 80K genotyped individuals who took the eyes test. He found Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) partly contribute to individual differences on this dimensional trait measure on which autistic people are impaired.[28] This is evidence that cognitive empathy/ToM is partly heritable. This also illustrates Baron-Cohen's approach to autism genetics that relates autism to individual differences in traits such as empathy and systemizing in the general population.[29] The National Institutes of Health recommended Baron-Cohen's eyes test as a core measure that should be used as part of the Research Domain Criteria (RDOC) for assessing social cognition.

Baron-Cohen developed the Mindreading software for special education.[30] His lab developed The Transporters, an animation series designed to teach children with autism to recognize and understand emotions. The series was also nominated for a BAFTA award.[9][31]

Reception

Spectrum News had described the work of Baron-Cohen on theory of mind as “a landmark study”.[32] The Lancet described him as “a man with extraordinary knowledge, but his passionate advocacy for a more tolerant, diverse society, where difference is respected and cultivated, reveals a very human side to his science”.[33]

Baron-Cohen has faced criticism by some for his "empathizing-systemizing theory", which states that humans may be classified on the basis of their scores along two dimensions (empathizing and systemizing); and that females tend to score higher on the empathizing dimension and males tend to score higher on the systemizing dimension. Feminist scientists, including Cordelia Fine, neuroscientist Gina Rippon, and Lise Eliot have opposed his extreme male brain theory of autism, calling it "neurotrash" and neurosexism.[34][35][36][37] Rippon also argues against using "male" and "female" for describing different types of brains, and that brain types do not correspond to genders.[35][38] Baron-Cohen has defended the neuroscience of sex differences against charges of neurosexism, arguing that "Fine's neurosexism allegation is the mistaken blurring of science with politics", adding that "You can be a scientist interested in the nature of sex differences while being a clear supporter of equal opportunities and a firm opponent of all forms of discrimination in society."[39]

Baron-Cohen and his book The Science of Evil were described by The New York Times “an award-winning psychologist” who had “unveiled a simple but persuasive hypothesis for a new way to think about evil.”[40]

A book review published in Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences characterized The Essential Difference as "very disappointing" with a "superficial notion of intelligence", concluding that Baron-Cohen's major claims about mindblindness and systemizing–empathizing are "at best, dubious".[41] According to Time magazine, his views on systemizing traits had "earned him the ire of some parents of autistic children, who complain that he underestimates their families' suffering".[9] Time said that while research from Washington University in St. Louis did not support the assortative mating theory, a survey finding that autism was twice as high in Eindhoven had "breathed new life" into Baron-Cohen's theory.[9] Time magazine has also criticized the assortative mating theory proposed by Baron-Cohen, claiming that it is largely speculative and based on anecdotal evidence. The theory claims that autism rates are increasing because "systemizers", individuals with more autistic traits, are more likely to marry each other and are more likely to have autistic offspring due to relatively recent societal changes.[42] James McGrath has criticized the autism-spectrum quotient, writing that the score increases if one indicates interest in mathematics, and decreases if one indicates interest in literature or art. He claims that this leads to the false notion that most autistic people are strong in math.[43]

The developers of the software Baron-Cohen used for a 2009 study which reported that autistic individuals possessed superior visual acuity said that his results were impossible based on the technology used in the study. Baron-Cohen's team responded to this criticism by re-running the study and retracting the claim.[44][45][46]

Baron-Cohen's supposition that Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein displayed autistic traits has been met with scepticism by UCSF psychiatrist Glenn Elliot, who writes that attempting to diagnose on the basis of biographical information is extremely unreliable, and that any behavior can have various causes.[47]

Critics also say that because his work has focused on higher-functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders, it requires independent replication with broader samples[48] and that his theories are based on subjective perceptions.[38] In response to some of these criticisms, Baron-Cohen agrees that many of his results have not been replicated, and says that he remains "open minded about these hypotheses until there are sufficient data to evaluate them". Still, he says he does not see a problem with introducing theories before definitive evidence has been collected.[48]

Furthermore, the mindblindness hypothesis, in addition to being questioned shortly after its publication,[49] has faced criticism from the scientific community,[50][51][52] in response to the many failed replications of classic ToM studies and the growing body of evidence for the heterogeneity of autism.[53] The theory of the double empathy problem and subsequent findings challenge the notion that autistic people exhibit inherent deficits in empathy and argued that difficulties of autistic people in social interactions with non-autistic people are due to differences in social-cognition and experiences between autistic people and non-autistic people, leading to two-way misunderstanding,[54] some aspects of which have been positively acknowledged by Baron-Cohen.[55]

Baron-Cohen's theories about mindblindness are also questioned by academic philosophers, particularly Autistic academic philosophers, in part on the basis that non-Autistic people are as blind to the internal states of Autistic people as Autistic people are to those of non-Autistics. [56] There is also criticism of Baron-Cohen's application of Theory of Mind to Autism on the grounds that he is not behaving scientifically, and that he is doing real harm to Autistic people.[57] Some also say that Baron-Cohen's work is easy to interpret as classifying Autistic people as not fully human.[57][58]

Organisations

Baron-Cohen is professor of developmental psychopathology at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom.[5] He is the director of the university's Autism Research Centre[59] and a Fellow of Trinity College.[5]

He is a Fellow of the British Psychological Society (BPS),[60] the British Academy,[61] the Academy of Medical Sciences, and the Association for Psychological Science.[62] He is a BPS Chartered Psychologist[60] and a Senior Investigator at the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR).[63]

He serves as vice-president of the National Autistic Society (UK),[64] and was the 2012 chairman of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Guideline Development Group for adults with autism.[65] He has served as vice-president and president of the International Society for Autism Research (INSAR).[5] He is co-editor in chief of the journal Molecular Autism.[66][67]

He was the chair of the Psychology Section of the British Academy.[68]

Recognition

Baron-Cohen was awarded the 1990 Spearman Medal from the BPS,[69] the McAndless Award from the American Psychological Association,[70] the 1993 May Davidson Award for Clinical Psychology from the BPS,[71] and the 2006 presidents' Award from the BPS.[72]

Baron-Cohen's Mindreading and The Transporters special educational software were nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) awards in 2002 and 2007.[73][74]

Baron-Cohen received an honorary degree from Abertay University in 2012,[75] and was awarded the Kanner-Asperger Medal in 2013 by the Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Autismus-Spektrum as a Lifetime Achievement Award for his contributions to autism research.[76]

He was knighted in the 2021 New Year Honours for services to people with autism.[77]

Personal life

In 1987, Baron-Cohen married Bridget Lindley.[78] Together, they had three children.[9]

He has an elder brother Dan Baron Cohen and three younger siblings, brother Ash Baron-Cohen and sisters Suzie and Liz.[4] His cousins include actor and comedian Sacha Baron Cohen and composer Erran Baron Cohen.[2][79][80]

Selected publications

Single-authored books

  • Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. MIT Press/Bradford Books. 1995. ISBN 978-0-262-02384-9.
  • The Essential Difference: Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain. Penguin/Basic Books. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7139-9671-5.
  • Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Facts. Oxford University Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-850490-0.
  • Zero Degrees of Empathy: A New Theory of Human Cruelty. Penguin/Allen Lane. 2011. ISBN 978-0-7139-9791-0. (published in the US as The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Human Cruelty, ISBN 978-0-465-02353-0)
  • The Pattern Seekers: A New Theory of Human Invention. Allen Lane. 2020. ISBN 978-0241242186. (published in the US as The Pattern Seekers: How Autism Drives Human Invention. Basic Books. 2020. ISBN 978-1541647145.)

Other books

  • Baron-Cohen S, Tager-Flusberg H, Lombardo MV, eds. (2013). Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives From Social Cognitive Neuroscience (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852446-5.
  • Hadwin J, Howlin P, Baron-Cohen S (2008). Teaching Children with Autism to Mindread: A Practical Guide for Teachers and Parents. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-97623-3.
  • Baron-Cohen S, Lutchmaya S, Knickmeyer R (2005). Prenatal Testosterone in Mind: Amniotic Fluid Studies. MIT Press/Bradford Books. ISBN 978-0-262-26774-8.
  • Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S (2004). An Exact Mind: An Artist with Asperger Syndrome. Jessica Kingsley. ISBN 978-1-84310-032-4.
  • Baron-Cohen S; Tager-Flusberg H; Cohen DJ, eds. (2000). Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852445-8.
  • Baron-Cohen S, Harrison J, eds. (1997). Synaesthesia: Classic and Contemporary Readings. Blackwells. ISBN 978-0-631-19763-8.
  • Baron-Cohen S, ed. (1997). The Maladapted Mind: Classic Readings in Evolutionary Psychopathology. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press/Taylor Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-86377-460-7.

Selected journal articles

See also

References

  1. ↑ Salman, Saba (2 October 2019). "Simon Baron-Cohen: 'Neurodiversity is the next frontier. But we're failing autistic people'". The Guardian.
  2. 1 2 Glazer S (July–August 2010). "The Provocative Baron Cohen Clan - Page 7 of 9". Moment Magazine - The Next 5,000 Years of Conversation Begin Here. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  3. ↑ "Simon Baron-Cohen: Ali G's smarter cousin and Britain's leading expert". The Independent. 23 May 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  4. 1 2 Baron-Cohen S. "My special sister Suzie". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "ARC people: Professor Simon Baron-Cohen". Autism Research Center, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
  6. ↑ Bishop DV (January 2008). "Forty years on: Uta Frith's contribution to research on autism and dyslexia, 1966-2006". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 61 (1): 16–26. doi:10.1080/17470210701508665. PMC 2409181. PMID 18038335.
  7. 1 2 Greenberg DM, Warrier V, Allison C, Baron-Cohen S (November 2018). "Testing the Empathizing-Systemizing theory of sex differences and the Extreme Male Brain theory of autism in half a million people". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (48): 12152–12157. Bibcode:2018PNAS..11512152G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1811032115. PMC 6275492. PMID 30420503.
  8. 1 2 3 Baron-Cohen, Simon (9 November 2012). "Are geeky couples more likely to have kids with autism?". Scientific American. Retrieved 14 April 2018. Pdf. Now in "4.4. Autism and the Technical Mind". Understanding Autism: The Search for Answers. Scientific American. 18 March 2013. ISBN 978-1-4668-3385-2.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Warner J (29 August 2011). "Autism's lone wolf". Time. Archived from the original on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2013.(subscription required)
  10. ↑ Roelfsema MT, Hoekstra RA, Allison C, Wheelwright S, Brayne C, Matthews FE, Baron-Cohen S (May 2012). "Are autism spectrum conditions more prevalent in an information-technology region? A school-based study of three regions in the Netherlands" (PDF). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 42 (5): 734–9. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1302-1. PMID 21681590. S2CID 220754158.
  11. ↑ Woodbury-Smith MR, Robinson J, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S (June 2005). "Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: a preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 35 (3): 331–5. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.653.8639. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7. PMID 16119474. S2CID 13013701.
  12. ↑ Ruzich E, Allison C, Chakrabarti B, Smith P, Musto H, Ring H, Baron-Cohen S (2015). "Sex and STEM Occupation Predict Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) Scores in Half a Million People". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0141229. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041229R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141229. PMC 4619566. PMID 26488477.
  13. 1 2 Baron-Cohen S, Tsompanidis A, Auyeung B, Nørgaard-Pedersen B, Hougaard DM, Abdallah M, et al. (November 2020). "Foetal oestrogens and autism". Molecular Psychiatry. 25 (11): 2970–2978. doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0454-9. PMC 7577840. PMID 31358906. S2CID 198982283.
  14. 1 2 Baron-Cohen S, Auyeung B, Nørgaard-Pedersen B, Hougaard DM, Abdallah MW, Melgaard L, et al. (March 2015). "Elevated fetal steroidogenic activity in autism". Molecular Psychiatry. 20 (3): 369–76. doi:10.1038/mp.2014.48. PMC 4184868. PMID 24888361.
  15. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Knickmeyer RC, Belmonte MK (November 2005). "Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism" (PDF). Science. 310 (5749): 819–23. Bibcode:2005Sci...310..819B. doi:10.1126/science.1115455. PMID 16272115. S2CID 44330420.
  16. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Lombardo MV, Auyeung B, Ashwin E, Chakrabarti B, Knickmeyer R (June 2011). "Why are autism spectrum conditions more prevalent in males?". PLOS Biology. 9 (6): e1001081. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001081. PMC 3114757. PMID 21695109.
  17. ↑ Lombardo MV, Ashwin E, Auyeung B, Chakrabarti B, Taylor K, Hackett G, Bullmore ET, Baron-Cohen S (January 2012). "Fetal testosterone influences sexually dimorphic gray matter in the human brain". The Journal of Neuroscience. 32 (2): 674–80. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4389-11.2012. PMC 3306238. PMID 22238103.
  18. ↑ Schwarz E, Guest PC, Rahmoune H, Wang L, Levin Y, Ingudomnukul E, Ruta L, Kent L, Spain M, Baron-Cohen S, Bahn S (December 2011). "Sex-specific serum biomarker patterns in adults with Asperger's syndrome". Molecular Psychiatry. 16 (12): 1213–20. doi:10.1038/mp.2010.102. PMID 20877284.
  19. ↑ Lai MC, Lombardo MV, Suckling J, Ruigrok AN, Chakrabarti B, Ecker C, Deoni SC, Craig MC, Murphy DG, Bullmore ET, Baron-Cohen S, et al. (MRC AIMS Consortium) (September 2013). "Biological sex affects the neurobiology of autism". Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 136 (Pt 9): 2799–815. doi:10.1093/brain/awt216. PMC 3754459. PMID 23935125.
  20. ↑ Cherskov A, Pohl A, Allison C, Zhang H, Payne RA, Baron-Cohen S (August 2018). "Polycystic ovary syndrome and autism: A test of the prenatal sex steroid theory". Translational Psychiatry. 8 (1): 136. doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0186-7. PMC 6068102. PMID 30065244.
  21. ↑ Rotem RS, Nguyen VT, Chodick G, Davidovitch M, Shalev V, Hauser R, et al. (April 2021). "Associations of Maternal Androgen-Related Conditions With Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Progeny and Mediation by Cardiovascular, Metabolic, and Fertility Factors". American Journal of Epidemiology. 190 (4): 600–610. doi:10.1093/aje/kwaa219. PMC 8024051. PMID 33521821.
  22. ↑ Kosidou K, Dalman C, Widman L, Arver S, Lee BK, Magnusson C, Gardner RM (October 2016). "Maternal polycystic ovary syndrome and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a population-based nationwide study in Sweden". Molecular Psychiatry. 21 (10): 1441–8. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.183. PMC 5030459. PMID 26643539.
  23. ↑ Saxe R (9 May 2008). "1985 paper on the theory of mind". SFARI. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
  24. 1 2 Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (October 1985). "Does the autistic child have a "theory of mind"?". Cognition. 21 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8. PMID 2934210. S2CID 14955234.
  25. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Hill J, Raste Y, Plumb I (February 2001). "The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 42 (2): 241–51. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00715. PMID 11280420. S2CID 3016793.
  26. ↑ Stone VE, Baron-Cohen S, Knight RT (September 1998). "Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 10 (5): 640–56. doi:10.1162/089892998562942. PMID 9802997. S2CID 207724498.
  27. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Ring HA, Wheelwright S, Bullmore ET, Brammer MJ, Simmons A, Williams SC (June 1999). "Social intelligence in the normal and autistic brain: an fMRI study". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 11 (6): 1891–8. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00621.x. PMID 10336657. S2CID 9436565.
  28. ↑ Warrier V, Grasby KL, Uzefovsky F, Toro R, Smith P, Chakrabarti B, et al. (June 2018). "Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition". Molecular Psychiatry. 23 (6): 1402–1409. bioRxiv 10.1101/081844. doi:10.1038/mp.2017.122. PMC 5656177. PMID 28584286. S2CID 196478363.
  29. ↑ Warrier V, Toro R, Won H, Leblond CS, Cliquet F, Delorme R, et al. (3 September 2019). "Social and non-social autism symptoms and trait domains are genetically dissociable". Communications Biology. 2 (1): 328. doi:10.1038/s42003-019-0558-4. PMC 6722082. PMID 31508503.
  30. ↑ "Mind Reading: Frequently Asked Questions: Who developed it?". Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
  31. ↑ "BAFTA Awards: Children's: Learning – Primary in 2007". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
  32. ↑ Askham, Angie (8 April 2022). "'Theory of mind' in autism: A research field reborn". Spectrum.
  33. ↑ Morgan, Jules (1 November 2015). "Simon Baron-Cohen: cultivating diversity". The Lancet.
  34. ↑ Rippon G (28 February 2019). The Gendered Brain: The new neuroscience that shatters the myth of the female brain. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4735-4897-8.
  35. 1 2 Guest K (2 March 2019). "The Gendered Brain by Gina Rippon review – exposing a myth". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  36. ↑ Fighting The Neurotrash, retrieved 2 January 2020
  37. ↑ Eliot L (27 February 2019). "Neurosexism: the myth that men and women have different brains". Nature. 566 (7745): 453–454. Bibcode:2019Natur.566..453E. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00677-x.
  38. 1 2 Costandi M (9 May 2011). "Simon Baron-Cohen: Theorizing on the mind in autism". Spectrum. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
  39. ↑ Baron-Cohen, Simon. "Delusions of gender - 'neurosexism', biology and politics". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  40. ↑ Bouton, Katherine (13 June 2011). "From Hitler to Mother Teresa: 6 Degrees of Empathy". The New York Times.
  41. ↑ Levy N (September 2004). "Book review: Understanding blindness". Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. 3 (3): 315–324. doi:10.1023/B:PHEN.0000049328.20506.a1. S2CID 145491944.
  42. ↑ Melnick M. "Could the Way We Mate and Marry Boost Rates of Autism?". Time. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  43. ↑ McGrath J (3 April 2019). "Not all autistic people are good at maths and science – despite the stereotypes". The Conversation. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
  44. ↑ Bach M, Dakin SC (November 2009). "Regarding "Eagle-eyed visual acuity: an experimental investigation of enhanced perception in autism"". Biological Psychiatry. 66 (10): e19-20, author reply e23-4. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.035. PMID 19576570. S2CID 17647820.
  45. ↑ Bölte S, Schlitt S, Gapp V, Hainz D, Schirman S, Poustka F, et al. (May 2012). "A close eye on the eagle-eyed visual acuity hypothesis of autism". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 42 (5): 726–33. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1300-3. PMC 3324676. PMID 21660498.
  46. ↑ Tavassoli T, Latham K, Bach M, Dakin SC, Baron-Cohen S (August 2011). "Psychophysical measures of visual acuity in autism spectrum conditions". Vision Research. 51 (15): 1778–80. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.06.004. PMC 6345362. PMID 21704058. Discussed in "Eagle-Eyed Autism? No". Neuroskeptic. 29 June 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  47. ↑ Muir H (30 April 2003). "Einstein and Newton showed signs of autism". New Scientist. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  48. 1 2 Buchen L (November 2011). "Scientists and autism: When geeks meet". Nature. 479 (7371): 25–7. Bibcode:2011Natur.479...25B. doi:10.1038/479025a. PMID 22051657.
  49. ↑ Shanker S (1 October 2004). "The Roots of Mindblindness". Theory & Psychology. 14 (5): 685–703. doi:10.1177/0959354304046179. ISSN 0959-3543. S2CID 143801835.
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