Introduction

At the beginning of the text, Tryambaka invokes Ganadhipati, Sarasvati, and his teachers.^[3] The text focuses on married women,^[4] and Tryambaka declares that the primary religious duty of women is to obediently serve their husbands.^[3] He states that he has compiled sacred laws related to women from various texts including the law books (dhrama-shastras) and the Puranas.^[5]

The daily duties of women

Tryambaka divides the night (and presumably the day) into six periods, and specifies various activities that the women should engage during each period.^[6] In the morning, a woman is expected to rise before her husband (who, according to the six-fold division of night, is expected to rise at 4 am).^[7]

In addition to several duties traditionally prescribed for men (such as personal hygiene), Tryambaka assigns various household tasks to women, such as food preparation, house cleaning, smearing the house with cow dung, tending to her children, tending to the cows, and massaging her husband.^[8]

A woman is also expected to perform ritual worship of threshold (including sketching of auspicious designs), and assist her husband in performing ritual sacrifices.^[9] According to Tryambaka, a wife should worship only three deities: her husband, and the two sister goddesses - Shri (Lakshmi) and Jyestha (Alakshmi).^[10]

When the husband eats, the wife is expected to serve him, and eat his leftovers. At night, she is expected to engage in sexual intercourse. Several of these duties, including a variety of sex positions, are illustrated in the book's palm-leaf manuscripts, now at the British Library.^[8]

Tryambaka does not make any provisions for a woman to rest, and lists day-time sleep among the things that corrupt women (and therefore should be avoided). Women are not expected to visit friends or study.^[8]

Tryambaka provides detailed instructions for several daily tasks. For example, he quotes Angiras' instructions on urinating and defecating:^[7]

He gives several modifying rules for tasks common to men and women. For example, he quotes Shankha for instructions on dressing:^[11]

He also provides different rules for menstruating women and widows. For example, these women (and women whose husbands are away) should avoid ornaments, flowers and other things that make them attractive.^[12]

The text states a woman should not answer back if her husband scolds her, or show anger and resentment if her husband beats her. The only exception is love-making, during which it is acceptable for a woman to strike her husband, scratch him, show anger towards him, or use harsh words as an expression of her passion.^[13]

The inherent nature of women

Like several other orthodox authorities, Tryambaka portrays women as inherently sinful, born as female because of sins in their previous births. He quotes Manu-smrti, Mahabharata and Ramayana to assert that women are naturally inclined to fickle-mindedness, habitual lying, unfaithfulness, and other bad qualities.^[14] Like these authorities, he also talks about the virtuous behaviour of women, without explaining the implicit contradiction.^[15]

Tryambaka suggests that women have not fallen too low, and therefore, capable of receiving instructions specified in his book.^[16] He quotes Manu and other authorities to state that women have some inherently good qualities such as purity and good fortune.^[17]

This concept of menstrual purity seems to be symbolic, since Tryambaka insists that a woman who behaves badly cannot escape penalties through ritual atonement (prayashchitta).^[19] Nevertheless, he states that women are blessed to have "the easiest path to heaven" - that of worshipping their husbands.^[20] Lastly, he argues that his instructions are useful for women because good conduct can destroy the inauspicious marks of one's nature or circumstances.^[21] Tryambaka uses these arguments to prove the usefulness of his text, and to persuade women to conform to the good behavior as specified by him.^[22]

The duties common to all women

Tryambaka outlines rulings on women's behavior from various texts; things that women should avoid; quotations praising wives devoted to their husbands (pati-vrata); duties and prohibitions specific to menstruating women, pregnant women, women whose husbands are away, and widows.^[23]

For example, according to him, the following six things corrupt a woman: drinking, keeping bad company, extramarital affairs, roaming around by herself, sleeping during the day, and spending time in other people's homes. The following six things cause women (and Shudras) to fall: recitation of sacred texts, ritual austerities (tapas), pilgrimage, renunciation (pravrajya), chanting of mantras, and worship of deities (other than her husband as long as the husband is alive).^[24]

Tryambaka states that a woman should never do anything independently, at any age, even in her own home: she should be subservient to her father as a child, to her husband as a wife, and to her sons as a widow.^[25] Regarding women's property rights, Tryambaka attempts to reconcile various contradictory authorities. For example, he lists the six types of property that a woman can own (e.g. given to her by her relatives), but states that a married woman needs her husband's permission to exercise her property rights. He also outlines certain exceptions to this rule; for example, a woman can make an occasional religious donation without her husband's permission, when he is away. Tryambaka also states that a woman's male relatives - including her husband - cannot use her property without her permission.^[26]

According to Tryambaka, the best thing a widow can do is die with her husband (sati). If this is not possible (e.g. because she is caring for an infant), she should lead a chaste and virtuous life, and remain dependent on her male relatives. Tryambaka discusses various arguments for and against the practice of niyoga, which allows a widow without a son to have sexual intercourse with another man to produce a son. He favours celibacy and adoption of a son over niyoga.^[27]

Conclusion

Tryambaka concludes that the primary religious duty of a woman is obedient service to her husband, without any regard for her own life: she should obey his commands even if they are in opposition to other religious duties.^[28] He quotes various episodes from religious texts to prove his point. For example, he refers to the story of Harishchandra to state that it is acceptable for a husband to sell his wife.^[29]

The author concludes by stating that he has included content from various texts (shruti, smriti, and puranas) in his work only after thorough examination. In the colophon, he dedicates his work to Krishna.^[30]

Bibliography