痛苦

痛苦（suffering）是構成情感現象負面效價（Valence）的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快樂或幸福等。與個人對傷害或傷害威脅的感知有關。[1]

1939年9月，波蘭華沙，12岁的波兰女孩卡齐米拉·米卡在她的姐姐安娜（14岁）旁邊，後者在德国空军的空袭中丧生。
摄影师朱利安·布赖恩描述当时的情景：“当我们开车经过城镇边缘的一片小田地时，我们目睹了這场悲劇，这是最令人难以置信的几分钟。七名妇女一直在地里挖土豆————他们所在的地区没有面粉，他们急需食物。突然两架德国飞机不知从哪里冒出来，向两百码外的一所小房子投下两枚炸弹。房子里的两名妇女被炸死。挖土豆的人平躺着地面上，希望不被注意。轰炸机离开后，妇女们回到工作岗位。她们必须吃东西。
但纳粹飞行员对他们的轟炸并不满意。几分钟后，他们回来俯冲到离地面不到200英尺的地方，这次用机枪扫射。七名妇女中有两名被杀。当我在给尸体拍照时，一个十岁的小女孩跑过来，站在一具遺體旁边目瞪口呆。这个女人是她的姐姐。孩子从未见过死亡，不明白为什么姐姐不再跟她说话……

痛苦通常被歸類為身體上的[2]或心智上的。[3] 它可能有各種程度的強度，從輕微到無法忍受。持續時間長度和發生頻率的因素通常與強度因素相結合。受苦者或其他人對痛苦的態度可能有很大差異，這取決於它被認為是可以避免或不可避免、有用或無用、值得或不值得的。

苦在各種生物的生命中以多種方式發生，經常是戲劇性的。因此，人類活動的許多領域都與痛苦的某些方面有關。這些方面可能包括痛苦的性質、過程、起源和原因和意義、相關的個人、社會和文化行為[4]、治療、管理和使用。

痛苦與人類的意識有關，而且經常伴隨著過去的經驗。

造成痛苦的常見示例有：

需求和期望未滿足
失去摯愛、親友、寵物等重要人物
與社會群體的分離
來自外部的約束和限制
面對老化、疾病和疼痛等

字源

在漢語中，痛，是指肉體上的疼痛，而苦，則是來自於味覺上的苦澀感覺，將這兩種感覺結合，就形成痛苦這個詞。痛苦是一個概括性的形容語，肉體上產生的疼痛感受，可以稱為痛苦，而心靈上的煩惱掙扎，也可以稱為痛苦。

宗教對「苦」的詮釋

參考資料

For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. . [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）.. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. . Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

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[1] For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."

[2] Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. . [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）.. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."

[3] Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.

[4] Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. . Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.