Burji Mamluks
سلطنة المماليك (Arabic)

Salṭanat al-Mamālīk (Mamluk Sultanate)

دولة الجراكسة (Arabic)

Dawlat al-Jarākisa (Circassian State)
1382–1517
Flag of
Flags according to the Catalan Atlas of c. 1375
Attributed arms of the Mamluk Sultan
Attributed arms of the Mamluk Sultan
(by Mecia de Viladestes map, 1413)
StatusSultanate under the Abbasid Caliphate
CapitalCairo
Spoken languagesArabic
Circassian[1] Turkic[2]
Religion
Sunni Islam
History 
 Established
1382
 Disestablished
1517
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Bahri Mamluks
Ottoman Empire

The Burji Mamluks (Arabic: المماليك البرجية, romanized: al-Mamalik al-Burjiya) or Circassian Mamluks (Arabic: المماليك الشركس, romanized: al-Mamalik al-Sharkas), sometimes referred to as the Burji dynasty,[3][4] were the rulers of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1382 until 1517. As with the preceding Bahri Mamluks, the members of the Burji Mamluk ruling class were purchased as slaves (mamluks) and manumitted, with the most powerful among them taking the role of sultan in Cairo. During this period, the ruling Mamluks were generally of Circassian origin, drawn from the Christian population of the northern Caucasus.[5][6][7][8] The name Burji, meaning 'of the tower', refers to the traditional residence of these Mamluks in the barracks of the Citadel of Cairo.[5][9][10]

Although sultans typically designated their sons to succeed them after death, the latter rarely lasted more than a few years before being usurped by one of the powerful Mamluk commanders, usually from among the Mamluks purchased by previous sultans.[5] Political power-plays often became important in designating a new sultan.[11]

During this period, the Mamluks fought Timur and conquered Cyprus. Over the course of the 15th century, the sultanate was weakened by infighting and economic decline brought about by multiple factors. Although militarily powerful, they were eventually unable to compete with the more modern army of the Ottoman Empire, leading to their eventual conquest in 1517 by the Ottomans.[11]

History

Establishment and early challenges

The funerary complex of Sultan Barquq in Cairo, completed in 1386[12]

From 1250, Egypt had been ruled by the first Mamluk dynasty, the mostly Cuman-Kipchak Turkic Bahri dynasty.[6] In 1377 a revolt broke out in Syria which spread to Egypt, and the government was taken over by the Circassians Barakah and Barquq; Barquq was proclaimed sultan in 1382, ending the Bahri dynasty. He was expelled in 1389 but recaptured Cairo in 1390. Early on, the Zahiri Revolt threatened to overthrow Barquq though the conspiracy was discovered before agitators could mobilize. Permanently in power, he founded the Burji dynasty.

Faced with a common enemy, Timur, Barquq joined with Bayezid I and Toktamish in a combined resistance and executed Timur's peace envoys.[13] In the following months Timur was engaged in Georgia and unable to respond to Barquq's actions, while Barquq had died by 1399.[13] In 1401, Timur invaded Syria and sacked Aleppo[14] and Damascus. Syria was regained by Barquq's son, sultan Nasir-ad-Din Faraj, after Timur died in 1405, but Faraj continually faced rebellions from the emirs there and he was forced to abdicate in 1412.

After Faraj, the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'in was permitted to rule the sultanate in Cairo for several months, but the role of sultan was soon taken by another Mamluk, Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh.[15]

Apogee and decline

Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay ("Mag Caitbeivs Cairi Svltan") by Florentine painter Cristofano dell'Altissimo (16th century), Galleria degli Uffizi

Under the reign of Sultan Barsbay, the Mamluk Sultanate grew to its widest territorial extent. In 1426, he invaded the Kingdom of Cyprus and forced its kings to become Mamluk vassals. However, Barsbay also introduced a number of economic policies that were damaging in the long term, such as a state monopoly on the spice trade.[16] During Barsbay's reign Egypt's population was greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before, with only one fifth of the number of towns. He frequently raided Asia Minor, but died in 1438.

During the reign of Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq an attempt to conquer Rhodes in 1444 from the Knights of St. John was repelled.

Sayf ad-Din Inal came to power in 1453 and had friendly relations with the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II, who captured Constantinople later that year, causing great celebration in Egypt. The relationship between the Ottomans and the Mamluks became more adversarial after this time. Both states constantly vied for control of the spice trade, and the Ottomans aspired to eventually take control of the Holy Cities of Islam.[17] Under the reign of Khusqadam, of Greek origin,[18] tensions increased. Both Khusqadam and Mehmed II supported different candidates to the principality of Karaman.

The Citadel of Qaitbay in Alexandria, completed in 1479[19]

After the death of Mehmed II in 1481, Sultan Qaitbay offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II by harboring his rebellious brother, Cem. Bayezid II later seized Adana, Tarsus and other places within Mamluk territory, but was unable to defeat the Mamluks during a prolonged war that ended in 1491.[20] Qaitbay also tried to help the Muslims in Spain by threatening the Christians in Syria, but without effect. He died in 1496, leaving several hundred thousand ducats in debts to the great Venetian trading families.

Following another several years of political instability and succession disputes, the last major Mamluk sultan was Qansuh al-Ghuri, who came to power in 1501. While he attempted some reforms, including the introduction of the first military regiment with gunpowder weapons, he was unable to fully integrate them into the Mamluk army and he could not fix the country's economic problems.[21]

Conquest by the Ottomans

By 1516, the Ottomans were free from other concerns — Sultan Selim I had just vanquished the Safavid Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514[22] —and turned their full might against the Mamluks, who still ruled in Syria and Egypt, to complete the Ottoman conquest of the Middle East.[22] Al-Ghuri led his army to confront Selim I's invasion of Syria in 1516, but he died in the Battle of Marj Dabiq and the Mamluk army was routed.[21]

In 1517, the Ottomans completed their conquest with the capture of Cairo on January 22.[21] The centre of power transferred from Cairo to Constantinople. However, the mamluks continued to exist as a political and military class in Ottoman Egypt. While the governors were appointed by the Ottoman sultan, the mamluks vied for influence within the country and held many high political positions. They were finally destroyed and exterminated by Muhammad Ali Pasha during his rise to power in Egypt in the early 19th century.[23]

List of Burji Sultans

Titular Name(s) Personal Name Reign
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf-ad-Din Barquq
سیف الدین برقوق
1382–1389
first reign
Sultan As-Saleh Al-Muzaffar Al-Mansur
سلطان الصالح المظفر المنصور
Salah-ad-Din Hajji II
صلاح الدین حاجی ثانی
1389
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf-ad-Din Barquq
سیف الدین برقوق
1390–1399
second reign
Al-Nasir
الناصر
Nasir-ad-Din Faraj
ناصر الدین فرج
1399–1405
first reign
Al-Mansur
المنصور
Izz ad-Din Abd al-Aziz
عز الدین عبدالعزیز
1405
Al-Nasir
الناصر
Nasir-ad-Din Faraj
ناصر الدین فرج
1405–1412
second reign
Al-Adil
العادل
Al-Musta'in Billah
المستعین باللہ
1412
Al-Mu'ayyad
المؤید
Shaykh al-Mahmudi
شيخ المحمودى
1412–1421
Al-Muzaffar
المظفر
Ahmad
أحمد
1421
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf ad-Din Tatar
سیف الدین تتر
1421
As-Saleh
الصالح
An-Nasir ad-Din Muhammad
ناصر الدین محمد
1421–1422
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Sayf-ad-Din Barsbay
سیف الدین برسبای
1422–1437
Al-Aziz
العزیز
Jamal-ad-Din Yusuf
جمال الدین یوسف
1437–1438
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq
سیف الدین جقمق
1438–1453
Al-Mansur
المنصور
Fakhr-ad-Din Uthman
فخرالدین عثمان
1453
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Sayf-ad-Din Inal
سیف الدین إینال
1453–1461
Al-Mu'ayyad
المؤید
Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad
شھاب الدین أحمد
1461
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam
سیف الدین خوش قدم
1461–1467
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Sayf ad-Din Bilbay
سیف الدین بلبأی
1467
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Taimur Bugha
تیمور بغا
1467–1468
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bay
سیف الدین قایتبای
1468–1496
Al-Nasir
الناصر
Muhammad bin Qait Bay
الناصر محمد بن قایتبای
1496–1497
first reign
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Qansuh Khumsama'ah
قانصوه خمسمائة
1497
Al-Nasir
الناصر
Muhammad bin Qait Bay
الناصر محمد بن قایتبای
1497–1498
second reign
Al-Zahir
الظاہر
Qansuh Al-Ashrafi
قانصوہ الأشرفی
1498–1500
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Al-Ashraf Janbalat
جنبلاط
1500–1501
Al-Adil
العادل
Sayf-ad-Din Tuman Bay I
سیف الدین طومان بای
1501
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Qansuh Al-Ghawri
قانصوہ الغوری
1501–1516
Al-Ashraf
الأشرف
Tuman Bay II
طومان بای
1516–1517
Burji dynasty of the Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) falls to Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I in 1517 C.E.
  • Orange shaded row signifies brief interruption in the rule of Burji dynasty by Bahri dynasty.
    • Silver shaded row signifies interruption in the rule of Burji dynasty by Abbasid dynasty.

See also

References

  1. Fischel 1967, p. 72.
  2. Yosef, Koby (2013). "The Term Mamlūk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate". Al-Qanṭara. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. 34 (1): 7–34. doi:10.3989/alqantara.2013.001.
  3. Shoup, John A. (2017). The Nile: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4408-4041-8.
  4. Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Wiley Blackwell. p. 579. ISBN 978-1-119-06857-0.
  5. 1 2 3 Bosworth, C. E. (1996). "The Mamluks". New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 76–80. ISBN 978-1-4744-6462-8.
  6. 1 2 McGregor, Andrew James (2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 15. ISBN 9780275986018. By the late fourteenth century Circassians from the north Caucasus region had become the majority in the Mamluk ranks.
  7. Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2.
  8. Heng, Geraldine (2018). The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42278-9.
  9. Petry, Carl F. (2014). The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4008-5641-1.
  10. AlSayyad, Nezar (2013). Cairo: Histories of a City. Harvard University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-674-07245-9.
  11. 1 2 Petry, Carl F. (2022). The Mamluk Sultanate: A History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–52. ISBN 9781108471046.
  12. Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture. The American University in Cairo Press. p. 225. ISBN 9789774160776.
  13. 1 2 The Mamluk Sultans: 1291–1517, Mustafa M. Ziada, A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Vol. III, ed. Kenneth Setton, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 490.
  14. Aleppo:the Ottoman Empire's caravan city, Bruce Masters, The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul, ed. Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Master, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 20.
  15. Petry, Carl F. (2022). The Mamluk Sultanate: A History. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781108471046.
  16. Petry, Carl F. (2022). The Mamluk Sultanate: A History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–39. ISBN 9781108471046.
  17. Ottoman seapower and Levantine diplomacy in the age of discovery by Palmira Johnson Brummett p.52ff
  18. Kenneth Meyer Setton (1969). A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, edited by .... Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 502.
  19. Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2006). "The Islamic History of the Lighthouse of Alexandria". Muqarnas. 23 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1163/22118993-90000093.
  20. Petry, Carl F. (2022). The Mamluk Sultanate: A History. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9781108471046.
  21. 1 2 3 Petry, Carl F. (2022). The Mamluk Sultanate: A History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–52. ISBN 9781108471046.
  22. 1 2 The Ottoman Empire: A Short History by Saraiya Faroqhi p.60ff
  23. Clot, André (1996). L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517. Perrin.

Further reading

  • Petry, Carl Forbes (2012). "Circassians, Mamlūk". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
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