South Korean protesters protesting against the US Beef Agreement on 11 May 2008.

Anti-American sentiment in Korea began with the earliest contact between the two nations and continued after the division of Korea and Korean War. Despite this, as of 2011, 74% of South Koreans have a favorable view of the U.S., making it one of the most pro-American countries in the world.[1]

One particular focus of such sentiment has focused on the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK) on the peninsula. There have been a number of high-profile cases of American soldiers committing rape and assault on Korean people, with an example being the 2002 Yangju highway incident,[2] as well as the 2008 Camp Humphreys expansion controversy. The ongoing U.S. military presence in South Korea, especially at Yongsan Garrison in central Seoul, remains a contentious issue. While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they may be reflective of deeper historical, anti-Western sentiment.

Within the last decade, many Korean dramas and films have portrayed Americans in a negative light, which may also contribute to the harboring of anti-American views among [South] Koreans.[3]

History

Pre-Korean War

Anti-Trusteeship Campaign in December 1945.

After the Japanese defeat in World War II the United States set up a self-declared government in Korea which pursued a number of very unpopular policies. In brief, the military government first supported the same Japanese colonial government. Then, it removed the Japanese officials but retained them as advisors. The Koreans, before the Americans had arrived, had developed their own popular-based government, the People's Republic of Korea, which is not to be confused with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the official name of North Korea. The popular government was ignored, censored, and then eventually outlawed by decree of the U.S. military government. The military government also created an advisory council for which the majority of seats were offered to the nascent Korea Democratic Party (KDP) which mainly consisted of large landowners, wealthy businesspeople, and former colonial officials. The military government, and this advisory council, set up elections for a legislature.

The elections were boycotted and protested throughout the country by the peasantry. The uprising was suppressed with police, U.S. troops and tanks, and declarations of martial law. The only representatives elected that were not of the KDP or its allies were from Jeju-do. Furthermore, the U.S.'s refusal to consult existing popular organizations in the south, as agreed upon at the Moscow Conference, and thus paving the way towards a divided Korea, embittered the majority of Koreans. Finally, pushing for United Nations elections that would not be observed by the Soviet-controlled north, over legal objections, enshrined a divided Korea, which the majority of Koreans opposed.[4]

Korean War

No Gun Ri massacre

A depiction of the scene under the No Gun Ri bridge from the 2009 South Korean feature film A Little Pond.

The No Gun Ri Massacre occurred on July 26–29, 1950, early in the Korean War, when South Korean refugees were killed by the 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment (and a U.S. air attack) at a railroad bridge near the village of No Gun Ri (revised Romanization Nogeun-ri), 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Seoul. In 2005, the South Korean government certified the names of 163 dead or missing (mostly women, children and old men) and 55 wounded. It said many other victims' names were not reported.[5] Survivors generally estimated 400 dead.[6] The U.S. Army cites the number of casualties as "unknown."[7] Along with the My Lai Massacre in Vietnam, it was one of the largest single massacres of civilians by U.S. land forces in the 20th century.[8]

The civilian killings gained widespread attention when the Associated Press published articles in 1999 in which 7th Cavalry veterans corroborated survivors' accounts, articles that later won the Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting. 7th Cavalry veteran Joe Jackman states, "there was kids out there, it didn't matter what it was, eight to 80, blind, crippled or crazy, they shot 'em all."[8] The AP also uncovered warfront orders to fire on refugees, given out of fear of enemy North Korean infiltration.[6] After years of rejecting claims by survivors, the Pentagon conducted an investigation and, in 2001, acknowledged the killings, but referred to the three-day event as "an unfortunate tragedy inherent to war and not a deliberate killing."[7] The U.S. rejected survivors' demands for an apology and compensation. Inconsistencies with the Pentagon's investigation led to Korean War veteran Pete McCloskey (who had been brought in to advise on the report) state, "the government will always lie about embarrassing matters."[8]

South Korean investigators disagreed with Pentagon findings, saying they believed 7th Cavalry troops were ordered to fire on the refugees.[9] The survivors' group called the U.S. report a "whitewash."[10] Additional archival documents later emerged showing U.S. commanders ordering the shooting of refugees during this period, declassified documents found but not disclosed by Pentagon investigators. Among them was a report by the U.S. ambassador in South Korea in July 1950 that the U.S. military had adopted a theater-wide policy of firing on approaching refugee groups.[11] Despite demands, the U.S. investigation was not reopened.[12]

Prompted by the exposure of No Gun Ri, survivors of similar alleged incidents in 1950–1951 filed reports with the Seoul government. In 2008 an investigative commission said more than 200 cases of alleged large-scale civilian killings by the U.S. military had been registered, mostly air attacks.[13] More documents detailing refugee 'kill' orders were unearthed at the U.S. national archives and point to the widespread targeting of refugees by commanders well after No Gun Ri massacre.[8] In August 1950 there were orders detailing that refugees crossing the Naktong River be shot.[8] Later in the same month, General Gay ordered artillery units to target civilians on the battlefield.[8] In January 1951, the U.S. 8th Army was detailing all units in Korea that refugees be attacked with all available fire including bombing.[8] In August 1950, 80 civilians are reported to have been killed while seeking sanctuary in a shrine by the village of Kokaan-Ri, near Masan in South Korea.[8] Other survivors recall 400 civilians killed by U.S. naval artillery on the beaches near the port of Pohang in September 1950.[8]

Sinchon Massacre

North Korea claims that US forces massacred 35,000 people at Sinchon between 17 October and 7 December 1950.

Geneva Conference of 1954

The armistice at the end of the Korean War required that a political conference be pursued where the question of a unified Korea would be addressed. Despite many proposals for independent national elections and a unified, democratic, independent Korea no declaration for a unified Korea was adopted. Some participants and analysts blame the U.S. for obstructing efforts towards unification.[14][15][16]

Military prostitution

Warning of Prostitution and Human trafficking in South Korea for G.I. by United States Forces Korea.

U.S. military patronage of South Korean prostitutes has been a source of controversy for decades.[17]

During the early 1990s, former victims of forced prostitution became a symbol of Anti-American nationalism.[18] Former military prostitutes are seeking compensation and apologies as they claim to have been the biggest sacrifice for the South Korea-United States alliance. Some South Korean women report being encouraged to provide sexual services for American soldiers.[19][20] As a result of this practice, some women were killed by soldiers,[21] including Yun Geum-i in 1992.[22] American military police and South Korean officials regularly raided clubs looking for women who were thought to be spreading venereal diseases, locking them up under guard in so-called monkey houses with barred windows. There, the prostitutes were forced to take medications until they were well.[19]

Role in the Gwangju Uprising

American Cultural Center arson

Sit-in protest at the US cultural Center on May 23, 1985

On December 9, 1980, in Gwangju, arsonists protesting the Gwangju massacre, burned the American Cultural Center (ko).[23]

On March 12, 1982, arsonists set fire to the American Cultural Center in Busan. They killed one and injured several others. Moon Pu-shik and Kim Hyon-jang were sentenced to death but later commuted to life sentences and then to 20 years.[24][25][26][27][28]

On November 20, 1982, arsonists fired American Cultural Center in Gwangju (ko) for the second time. In September 1983, Daegu's American Cultural Center was bombed (ko).[29] In May 1985 in Seoul, American Cultural Center was seized.[29]

On April 23, 2013, in Daegu, two anti-U.S. arsonists mistakenly attacked a cram school called the American Cultural Center.[30][31]

2000s incidents

Yangju highway incident

On June 13, 2002, a U.S. military vehicle fatally injured two 14-year-old South Korean girls, Shin Hyo-sun (신효순) and Shim Mi-seon (심미선), who were walking along a street in Euijeongbu, Gyeonggi-do. The incident provoked anti-American sentiment in South Korea when a U.S military court found the soldiers involved, who were sent back to the United States immediately after the decision, not guilty. This prompted hundreds of thousands of South Koreans to protest against the U.S Army's continued presence.[32][33]

PSY's anti-American performance

South Korean pop star PSY.

In 2002, PSY and some pop stars participated in an anti-American concert in response to the incident. PSY lifted up a model of a U.S. M2 Bradley armoured vehicle and smashed it,[34][35] and rapped the song "Dear American".[35] The song was written by a South Korean band to condemn the United States and its military for its role in the Iraq War.[35] The anti-American lyrics saying, "Kill those fucking Yankees who have been torturing Iraqi captives and those who ordered them to torture," and "Kill them all slowly and painfully," as well as "daughters, mothers, daughters-in-law and fathers."[36] In December 2012, he issued an apology to the US Military.

Apolo Ohno 2002 Winter Olympics controversy

In Salt Lake City, Utah, Apolo Anton Ohno emerged as a popular athlete among US fans for reportedly charming them with his cheerful attitude and laid-back style. He became the face of short track speed skating in the US, which was a relatively new and unknown sport at the time, and carried the medal hopes of America in that sport.[37] Ohno medaled in two events, although there was some controversy associated with the results.

In the 1500 m race, Ohno won the gold medal, with a time of 2:18.541. During the 1500 m final race, South Korean Kim Dong-sung was first across the finish line, but was disqualified for blocking Ohno, in what is called cross tracking.[38][39] Ohno was in second place with three laps remaining, and on his third attempt to pass on the final lap, Kim drifted slightly to the inside where Ohno raised his arms and came out of his crouch to signal that he was blocked. Fourth-place finisher of the same race, Fabio Carta of Italy, showed his disagreement with the decision saying that it was "absurd that the Korean was disqualified."[40] China's Li Jiajun, who moved from bronze to silver, remained neutral saying: "I respect the decision of the referee, I'm not going to say any more."[40] Steven Bradbury of Australia, the 1000 m gold medal winner, also shared his views: "Whether Dong-Sung moved across enough to be called for cross-tracking, I don't know, he obviously moved across a bit. It's the judge's interpretation. A lot of people will say it was right and a lot of people will say it's wrong. I've seen moves like that before that were not called. But I've seen them called too."[40][41]

"Fucking USA"

"Fucking USA" is a protest song written by South Korean singer and activist Yoon Min-suk. Strongly anti-US foreign policy and anti-Bush, the song was written in 2002 at a time when, following the Apolo Ohno Olympic controversy and the Yangju highway incident, anti-American sentiment in South Korea reached record high levels.[42]

The Host

The 2006 South Korean monster film The Host has been described as anti-American. The film was in part inspired by an incident in 2000 in which a Korean mortician working for the U.S. military in Seoul dumped a large amount of formaldehyde down the drain. In the film the dumped chemicals engender a horrible mutated monster from the river which menaces the inhabitants of Seoul.[43] The American military situated in South Korea is portrayed as uncaring about the effects their activities have on the locals. The chemical agent used by the American military to combat the monster in the end is named "Agent Yellow" in reference to Agent Orange.[44]

The director, Bong Joon-ho, commented on the issue: "It's a stretch to simplify The Host as an anti-American film, but there is certainly a metaphor and political commentary about the U.S."[45] Because of its themes that can be seen as critical of the United States, the film was actually lauded by North Korean authorities,[46] a rarity for a South Korean blockbuster film.

2008 US beef protest

Between 24 May 2008 and about 18 July 2008 in Seoul, mass protests were held in Seoul against the importation of American beef.[47]

2010s incidents

2015 attack on the USA Ambassador

At about 7:40 a.m. on March 5, 2015, Mark Lippert, United States Ambassador to South Korea was attacked by a knife-wielding man at a restaurant attached to Sejong Center in downtown Seoul, where he was scheduled to give a speech at a meeting of the Korean Council for Reconciliation and Cooperation.[48] The assailant, Kim Ki-jong, is a member of Uri Madang (우리마당), a progressive cultural organization opposed to the Korean War.[49] He inflicted wounds on Lippert's left arm as well as a four-inch cut on the right side of the ambassador's face, requiring 80 stitches.[48] Lippert underwent surgery at Yonsei University's Severance Hospital in Seoul. While his injuries were not life-threatening, doctors stated that it would take several months for Lippert to regain use of his fingers.[48] A police official said that the knife used in the attack was 10 inches (25 cm) long[48] and Lippert later reported that the blade penetrated to within 2 cm of his carotid artery.[50] ABC News summarized the immediate aftermath of the attack as follows: "Ambassador Lippert, an Iraq war veteran, defended himself from the attack. Lippert was rushed to a hospital where he was treated for deep cuts to his face, his arm, and his hand. ... [He] kept his cool throughout the incident."[51]

During the attack and while being subdued by security, Kim screamed that the rival Koreas should be unified and told reporters that he had attacked Lippert to protest the annual United States–South Korean joint military exercises.[48] Kim has a record of militant Korean nationalist activism; he attacked the Japanese ambassador to South Korea in 2010 and was sentenced to a three-year suspended prison term.[52][53][54][55] On September 11, 2015, Kim was sentenced to twelve years in prison for the attack.[56]

Japan–South Korea Comfort Women Agreement issues

On December 28, 2015, the Japan-South Korea Comfort Women Agreement was voted on under a compromise between the two conservative governments of South Korea (Park Geun-hye) and Japan (Shinzo Abe).[lower-alpha 1] Amnesty International and South Korean liberal-to-progressives criticized the deal because it excluded the victim's direct intentions.[57]

All South Korean liberal-to-progressive media believe the negotiations were forced by the United States. The reason is that the United States wants South Korea and Japan to work together to check economically growing China, rather than the human rights and justice of Japanese war crimes Korean-victims who are still alive.[58][59][60]

The Japan-South Korea Comfort Women Agreement temporarily increased anti-American sentiment among South Korean liberal-to-progressives. However, a year later, due to the THAAD issue, anti-Chinese sentiment in South Korea surged as China 'economical retaliated' against South Korea, which greatly reduced anti-American sentiment among liberal-to-progressives.[61][62] The Moon Jae-in government and subsequent South Korean liberals are supporting a foreign policy to turn North Korea into a "pro-U.S. country" to keep both China and Japan in check.[63][lower-alpha 2]

General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) issues

As part of the 2019 Japan–South Korea trade dispute, the Moon Jae-in government attempted to end GSOMIA, a 2016 Japan–South Korea military exchange agreement signed under the facilitation of the United States. This provoked negative reactions from American analysts and politicians, who claimed that the decision would worsen North Korean security threats.[66][67] Eventually, GSOMIA was maintained. Some left-leaning South Koreans, including the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions,[65] have described the U.S. as a violation of South Korean sovereignty and the deliberate ignoring of Japan's former colonization of Korea.[68][69]

Anti-American sentiment in South Korea is generally associated with the liberal or progressive movement, rather than the conservative.[61][70][62][71][72] However, anti-Chinese sentiment has increased significantly in South Korea regardless of political orientation since the 2010s, which led to a significant decrease in anti-American sentiment among South Korean liberals.[61]

While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they may be reflective of deeper historical, anti-Western sentiment. Robert Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries."[73] Speaking to the Wilson Center, Katharine Moon notes that while the majority of South Koreans support the American alliance "anti-Americanism also represents the collective venting of accumulated grievances that in many instances have lain hidden for decades."[73]

In the 2020s, political anti-Americanism in South Korea is mainly seen by 'some' socialists and anti-U.S. nationalists, while liberals and conservatives may be at odds with the United States in part, but basically support political pro-Americanism. Socialists and anti-U.S. nationalists in South Korea have never formed a mainstream political force.[lower-alpha 3]

Indigenous nuclear weapon issues

Since the 2020s, anti-American sentiment has emerged among supporters of indigenous nuclear weapons in the South Korea, mostly right-wing nationalist-conservatives. Anti-American sentiment among some conservatives in the South comes because the U.S. believes it cannot protect the South Korea from North Korean nuclear weapons. However, conservatives should be distinguished from the anti-American sentiment of 'far-left (NL) nationalists' because they have a stronger anti-communist and anti-North sentiment and are also pro-American in that they strongly oppose the withdrawal of U.S. troops.[75]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Conservatives in South Korea often have weaker or less anti-Japanese sentiment than liberals. They are willing to cooperate with Japan because 'anti-communist' (anti-North Korea government and pro-American) sentiment is stronger than liberals.
  2. ↑ Most South Koreans, including liberal-to-progressives, traditionally tend to be more wary of Chinese and Japanese than the Americans.[64] Anti-American sentiment among South Korean liberal-to-progressives comes mostly from the United States' disregard for South Korea's anti-Japanese sentiment and historical justice against Japan.[65]
  3. ↑ Pro-Americanism of liberals and conservatives have completely different purposes. Liberals pro-Americanism tends to establish friendly relations with the United States to protect South Korea from Chinese/Japanese imperialism. At the same time, they have considerable sympathy for North Korea, which shares its identity as basically the same South Korean, and seek from the U.S. to ease sanctions on the North Korea and acquiesce or support for its Sunshine policy.[70] This leaves liberals critical of China but friendly to Russia.[74] In contrast, Conservatives' pro-Americanism is hostile to North Korea because it is based on anti-communist sentiment.

References

  1. ↑ Views of US Continue to Improve in 2011 BBC Country Rating Poll Archived 2012-11-23 at the Wayback Machine, March 7, 2011.
  2. ↑ "Road deaths ignite Korean anti-Americanism". International Herald Tribune. August 1, 2002. Archived from the original on September 15, 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  3. ↑ Kao, Anthony (8 April 2018). "Why Don't Korean Dramas and Movies Like Americans?". Cinema Escapist. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  4. ↑ Hart-Landsberg, Martin (1998). Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy. Monthly Review Press. pp. 70–77, 81–87.
  5. ↑ Committee for the Review and Restoration of Honor for the No Gun Ri Victims (2009). No Gun Ri Incident Victim Review Report. Seoul: Government of the Republic of Korea. pp. 247–249. ISBN 978-89-957925-1-3.
  6. 1 2 "War's hidden chapter: Ex-GIs tell of killing Korean refugees". The Associated Press. September 29, 1999.
  7. 1 2 Office of the Inspector General, U.S. Department of the Army (January 2001). No Gun Ri Review. U.S. Department of the Army. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Kill 'em All': The American Military in Korea". BBC. September 8, 2016.
  9. ↑ Ministry of Defense, Republic of Korea. The Report of the Findings on the No Gun Ri Incident. Seoul, South Korea. January 2001, p. 176.
  10. ↑ Becker, Elizabeth (January 12, 2001). "Army confirms G.I.'s in Korea killed civilians". The New York Times. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
  11. ↑ Hanley, Charles J. (December 2010). "No Gun Ri: Official Narrative and Inconvenient Truths". Critical Asian Studies. 42 (4): 599–600. doi:10.1080/14672715.2010.515389. S2CID 146914282.
  12. ↑ "US Still Says South Korea Killings 'Accident' Despite Declassified Letter". Yonhap news agency. October 30, 2006.
  13. ↑ Tirman, John (2011). The Deaths of Others: The Fate of Civilians in America's Wars. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 288, 294. ISBN 978-0-19-538121-4.
  14. ↑ "The Geneva Conference". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 2000-11-17. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  15. ↑ Hart-Landsberg, Martin (1998). Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy. Monthly Review Press. pp. 133–138.
  16. ↑ Halliday, Jon; Cumings, Bruce (1988). Korea, The Unknown War. Pantheon Books. p. 211. The Canadian representative, Ronning said:
    The communists had come to Geneva to negotiate ... I thought I had come to participate in a peace conference ... Instead, the emphasis was entirely on preventing a peace settlement from being realized ... There was no excuse for closing the conference without a peace agreement. Molotov's resolution ... could have been accepted as a basis for a settlement by most of the Sixteen [states that fought under the UN flag]
  17. ↑ Cho, Grace M. (22 August 2014). "Eating military base stew". Contexts. Archived from the original on 23 June 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
  18. ↑ Cho, Grace (2008). Haunting the Korean Diaspora: Shame, Secrecy, and the Forgotten War. University of Minnesota Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0816652754.
  19. 1 2 CHOE, SANG-HUN (2009-01-07). "Ex-Prostitutes Say South Korea and U.S. Enabled Sex Trade Near Bases". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  20. ↑ Park, Soo-mee (2008-10-30). "Former sex workers in fight for compensation". JoongAng Ilbo. Archived from the original on 2013-04-30. Retrieved 2012-12-11.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  21. ↑ Lee, Min-a (2005-07-31). "Openly revealing a secret life". JoongAng Ilbo. Archived from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2012-12-11.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  22. ↑ Cho, Grace M. (2008). Haunting the Korean Diaspora: Shame, Secrecy, and the Forgotten War. University of Minnesota Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0816652747. In October 1992, a camptown sex worker named Yun Geum-I was brutally murdered by one of her clients during a dispute.
  23. ↑ Kim Hoki (2012-02-19). "'신군부 학살' 맞서 불댕긴 우리유공자인가요, 방화범인가요". Hankyoreh. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  24. ↑ Anniversary of Arson Attack on Pusan "American Cultural-Service" Observed (KOREAN CENTRAL NEWS AGENCY)
  25. ↑ ANTI-U.S. SENTIMENT IS SEEN IN KOREA The New York Times March 28, 1982
  26. ↑ 2 Sentenced to Death In Korean Arson Case The New York Times August 11, 1982
  27. ↑ CHUN SPARES 2 DOOMED IN KOREAN ARSON CASE New York Times. March 16, 1983
  28. ↑ SEOUL DECLARES AN AMNESTY, BUT NOT FOR EVERYONE New York Times. February 27, 1988
  29. 1 2 Kim Hoki (2003-01-01). "[특집│한미동맹 50주년, 흔들리는 한미 관계] 이제 미국은 없다? 崇美에서 反美까지... 한국인의 복잡한 심리 분석 반미, 학생운동의 주요 이슈". Dong-a Ilbo. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  30. ↑ Charlotte Meredith　'Korean terrorists target US but mistakenly fire bomb a school' Express April 23, 2013
  31. ↑ Terrorists In Korea Target Americans, Mistakenly Bomb Themselves Terrorists in Korea target Americans, but mistakenly fire bomb a Korean own English academy NAIJ 24 April 2013
  32. ↑ Lim, Jason (2008-01-21). "Saying Sorry Across Cultures". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 2008-10-18.
  33. ↑ Song Pyong-in (송평인) (18 July 2002). 생일파티길 두 여중생 궤도차량에 참변 전말 [Special reports on the tragedy of two school-girls]. The Dong-a ilbo (in Korean). Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  34. ↑ STANTON, KATE. "Did 'Gangnam Style's Psy once rap 'Kill those f***ing Yankees?". United Press International. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  35. 1 2 3 Fisher, Max. "Gangnam Nationalism: Why Psy's anti-American rap shouldn't surprise you". The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  36. ↑ Imam, Jareen (2012-12-10). "PSY apologizes for viral anti-American lyrics". CNN. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  37. ↑ Caple, Jim (2002-02-23). "Apolo's great name sucked us into short track". ESPN.com. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
  38. ↑ "Ohno disqualified in 500, U.S. falls in 5,000 relay". Associated Press. 2002-02-23. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
  39. ↑ Arirang News (2006-02-13). "Korea Picks up First Gold in Torino". The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 2006-12-07. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
  40. 1 2 3 St Petersburg Times (2002-08-24). "Ohno finishes second, then first as winner is disqualified". St Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
  41. ↑ ESPN (2002-02-23). "South Korean DQ'd; officials promise protest". ESPN. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
  42. ↑ "Through the East Asian Lens". May 7, 2003. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008.
  43. ↑ Jon Herskovitz (2006-09-07). "South Korean movie monster gobbles up box office". Reuters. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
  44. ↑ Scott Weinberg (2006-09-13). "TIFF Interview: The Host Director Bong Joon-ho". cinematical.com. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
  45. ↑ Heejin Koo (2006-09-07). "Korean filmmakers take center stage to bash trade talks". Bloomberg news. Retrieved 2007-01-13.
  46. ↑ "North Korea lauds S. Korean movie 'The Host' for anti-American stance". Yonhap news. 2006-11-16. Archived from the original on 2007-04-30. Retrieved 2007-01-13.
  47. ↑ John Huer (2008-05-25). "Beef and Anti-Americanism". Korea Times. Archived from the original on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 Choe Sang-hun & Michael D. Shear, U.S. Ambassador to South Korea Is Hospitalized After Knife Attack, New York Times, March 4, 2015.
  49. ↑ "The Korea Post". 2016-03-04. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2019-08-08.
  50. ↑ "Wounded U.S. ambassador 'lucky' to be alive"
  51. ↑ "US Ambassador to South Korea Defends Himself From Attack"
  52. ↑ "US ambassador to SKorea slashed on face and wrist in attack". SFGate. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  53. ↑ "US Ambassador Mark Lippert attacked in Seoul". The Korea Observer. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  54. ↑ "US ambassador to South Korea injured by attacker". BBC News. 5 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  55. ↑ "US Ambassador to SKorea Slashed on Face and Wrist in Attack". ABC News. Mar 4, 2015.
  56. ↑ "Twelve Years for the Korean Who Attacked a U.S. Envoy". The Atlantic. 11 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  57. ↑ "국제앰네스티 "위안부 협상 타결로 정의 구현 종지부 찍어선 안 돼"". KBS NEWS. 28 December 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  58. ↑ ""미국이 개입해 박근혜 정부 압박… 한일 위안부 합의 졸속 타결"". 한국일보. 27 December 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  59. ↑ "위안부 굴욕 협상의 배후에 미국이 있다". 프레시안. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  60. ↑ "한일 위안부 협상, 막후엔 미국이 있다". OhmyNews. 30 December 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  61. 1 2 3 "중국에 대한 반감, 그 반대편에 친미가 있다". 시사IN. 12 July 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  62. 1 2 "'진보=반미, 보수=친미' 이분법 깨졌다". 한국일보. 2 January 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  63. ↑ "송영길 "북, 제2의 베트남 친미국가로...미국에 의견 전달"". YTN. 24 November 2021.
  64. ↑ Oh In-gyu ed. (2016). Hallyu Consumption through Overcoming Nationalism - Japanese and Chinese Reaction to Anti - Japanese and Anti - Chinese Content within Hallyu TV Dramas. Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information.
  65. 1 2 ""미국, 지소미아 강요하면 한국민들 반일 넘어 반미로 갈 것"". 시사울산. 12 November 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
  66. ↑ "미국 전문가 20명중 19명, 지소미아 종료 반대". 아틀라스. 17 November 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
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