Aaron Swartz
Swartz smiling
Swartz in 2008
Born
Aaron Hillel Swartz[1]

(1986-11-08)November 8, 1986
Highland Park, Illinois,[2] U.S.
DiedJanuary 11, 2013(2013-01-11) (aged 26)
New York City, U.S.
Cause of deathSuicide by hanging
Education
Occupations
Organizations
TitleFellow, Harvard University Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
Awards
Websiteaaronsw.com

Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 – January 11, 2013) was an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political organizer, and Internet hacktivist. As a programmer, Swartz helped develop the web feed format RSS; the technical architecture for Creative Commons, an organization dedicated to creating copyright licenses; the website framework web.py; and Markdown, a lightweight markup language format. Swartz was involved in the development of the social news aggregation website Reddit until he departed from the company in 2007.[note 1] He is often credited as a martyr and a prodigy,[7][8] and his work focused on civic awareness and activism.[9][10][11]

After Reddit was sold to Condé Nast Publications in 2006, Swartz became more involved in activism, helping launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee in 2009. In 2010, he became a research fellow at Harvard University's Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption, directed by Lawrence Lessig.[12][13] He founded the online group Demand Progress, known for its campaign against the Stop Online Piracy Act.

On January 6, 2011, Swartz was arrested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) police on state breaking-and-entering charges, after connecting a computer to the MIT network in an unmarked and unlocked closet and setting it to download academic journal articles systematically from JSTOR using a guest user account issued to him by MIT.[14][15] Federal prosecutors, led by Carmen Ortiz, later charged him with two counts of wire fraud and eleven violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act,[16] carrying a cumulative maximum penalty of $1 million in fines, 35 years in prison, asset forfeiture, restitution, and supervised release.[17] Swartz declined a plea bargain under which he would have served six months in federal prison.[18] Two days after the prosecution rejected a counter-offer by Swartz, he was found dead in his Brooklyn apartment.[19][20] In 2013, Swartz was inducted posthumously into the Internet Hall of Fame.[21]

Early life

Swartz in 2002 with Lawrence Lessig at the launch party for Creative Commons

Aaron Swartz was born in Highland Park, 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Chicago,[2][22] into a Jewish family.[23] He was the eldest child of Susan and Robert Swartz and brother to Noah and Ben Swartz.[1][24] He was an atheist.[25] His father founded the software firm Mark Williams Company. At an early age, Swartz immersed himself in the study of computers, programming, the Internet, and Internet culture.[26] He attended North Shore Country Day School, a small private school near Chicago, until ninth grade,[27] when he left high school and enrolled in courses at Lake Forest College.[28][29]

In 1999, at age twelve, he created the website The Info Network, a user-generated encyclopedia.[30] The site won the ArsDigita Prize, given to young people who create "useful, educational, and collaborative" noncommercial websites and led to early recognition of Swartz's nascent talent in coding.[1][31][32] At age 14, he became a member of the working group that authored the RSS 1.0 web syndication specification.[33] A year later, he became involved in the Creative Commons organization.[34] In 2005, he enrolled at Stanford University but left the school after his first year.[35]

Entrepreneurship

During Swartz's first year at Stanford, he applied to Y Combinator's first Summer Founders Program, proposing to work on a startup called Infogami, a flexible content management system designed to create rich and visually interesting websites[36] or a form of wiki for structured data. After working on it with co-founder Simon Carstensen over the summer of 2005, Swartz opted not to return to Stanford, choosing instead to continue to develop and seek funding for Infogami.[36]

As part of his work on Infogami, Swartz created the web.py web application framework because he was unhappy with other available systems in the Python programming language. In the early fall of 2005, he worked with his fellow co-founders of another nascent Y-Combinator firm, Reddit, to rewrite its Lisp codebase using Python and web.py. Although Infogami's platform was abandoned after Not a Bug was acquired, Infogami's software was used to support the Internet Archive's Open Library project and the web.py web framework was used as the basis for many other projects by Swartz and many others.[37]

When Infogami failed to find further funding, Y-Combinator organizers suggested Infogami merge with Reddit,[38][39] which it did in November 2005, creating a new firm, Not a Bug, devoted to promoting both products.[38][5] As a result, Swartz was given the title of co-founder of Reddit. Although both projects initially struggled, Reddit made large gains in popularity in 2005–2006.

In October 2006, based largely on Reddit's success, Not a Bug was acquired by Condé Nast Publications, owner of Wired magazine.[26][40] Swartz moved with his company to San Francisco to continue to work on Reddit for Wired.[26] He found corporate office life uncongenial and ultimately was asked to resign from the company.[41] In September 2007, he joined Infogami co-founder Simon Carstensen to launch a new firm, Jottit, in another attempt to create a Markdown-driven content management system in Python.[42]

Activism

In 2008, Swartz founded Watchdog.net, "the good government site with teeth", to aggregate and visualize data about politicians.[43][44] That year, he wrote a widely circulated Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[45][46][47][48] On December 27, 2010, he filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to learn about the treatment of Chelsea Manning, alleged source for WikiLeaks.[49][50]

PACER

In 2008, Swartz downloaded about 2.7 million federal court documents stored in the PACER (Public Access to Court Electronic Records) database managed by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts.[51]

The Huffington Post characterized his actions this way: "Swartz downloaded public court documents from the PACER system in an effort to make them available outside of the expensive service. The move drew the attention of the FBI, which ultimately decided not to press charges as the documents were, in fact, public."[52]

PACER was charging eight cents per page for information that Carl Malamud, who founded the nonprofit group Public.Resource.Org, contended should be free, because federal documents are not covered by copyright.[53][54] The fees were "plowed back to the courts to finance technology, but the system [ran] a budget surplus of some $150 million, according to court reports," reported The New York Times.[53] PACER used technology that was "designed in the bygone days of screechy telephone modems ... putting the nation's legal system behind a wall of cash and kludge."[53] Malamud appealed to fellow activists, urging them to visit one of 17 libraries conducting a free trial of the PACER system, download court documents, and send them to him for public distribution.[53]

After reading Malamud's call for action,[53] Swartz used a Perl computer script running on Amazon cloud servers to download the documents, using credentials belonging to a Sacramento library.[51] From September 4 to 20, 2008, it accessed documents and uploaded them to a cloud computing service. He released the documents to Malamud's organization.[54]

On September 29, 2008, the GPO suspended the free trial, "pending an evaluation" of the program. Swartz's actions were subsequently investigated by the FBI.[53][54] The case was closed after two months with no charges filed.[54] Swartz learned the details of the investigation after filing a FOIA request with the FBI, and described their response as the "usual mess of confusions that shows the FBI's lack of sense of humor."[54] PACER still charges per page, but customers using Firefox, Chrome, or Safari have the option of saving the documents for free public access with a plug-in called RECAP.[55][56]

At a 2013 memorial for Swartz, Malamud recalled their work with PACER. They brought millions of U.S. District Court records out from behind PACER's "pay wall", he said, and found them full of privacy violations, including medical records and the names of minor children and confidential informants.

We sent our results to the Chief Judges of 31 District Courts ... They redacted those documents and they yelled at the lawyers that filed them ... The Judicial Conference changed their privacy rules. ... [To] the bureaucrats who ran the Administrative Office of the United States Courts ... we were thieves that took $1.6 million of their property. So they called the FBI ... [The FBI] found nothing wrong ...[57]

A more detailed account of his collaboration with Swartz on the PACER project appears in an essay on Malamud's website.[58]

Writing in Ars Technica, Timothy Lee,[59] who later made use of the documents obtained by Swartz as a co-creator of RECAP, offered some insight into discrepancies in reports on how much data Swartz downloaded: "In a back-of-the-envelope calculation a few days before the offsite crawl was shut down, Swartz guessed he got around 25 percent of the documents in PACER. The New York Times similarly reported Swartz had downloaded "an estimated 20 percent of the entire database". Based on the facts that Swartz downloaded 2.7 million documents while PACER, at the time, contained 500 million, Lee concluded that Swartz downloaded less than one percent of the database.[51]

Progressive Change Campaign Committee

In 2009, wanting to learn about effective activism, Swartz helped launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee.[60] He wrote in his blog: "I spend my days experimenting with new ways to get progressive policies enacted and progressive politicians elected."[61] He led the first activism event of his career with the Progressive Change Campaign Committee, delivering thousands of "Honor Kennedy" petition signatures to Massachusetts legislators, asking them to fulfill former Senator Ted Kennedy's last wish by appointing a senator to vote for healthcare reform.[62]

Demand Progress

In 2010,[63] Swartz co-founded Demand Progress,[64] a political advocacy group that organizes people online to "take action by contacting Congress and other leaders, funding pressure tactics, and spreading the word" about civil liberties, government reform, and other issues.[65]

During academic year 2010–11, Swartz conducted research studies on political corruption as a Lab Fellow in Harvard University's Edmond J. Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption.[12][13]

Author Cory Doctorow, in his novel Homeland, "drew on advice from Swartz in setting out how his protagonist could use the information now available about voters to create a grass-roots anti-establishment political campaign."[66] In an afterword to the novel, Swartz wrote: "These political hacktivist tools can be used by anyone motivated and talented enough.... Now it's up to you to change the system. ... Let me know if I can help."[66]

Opposition to the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)

Swartz in 2012 protesting against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)

Swartz was involved in the campaign to prevent passage of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), which sought to combat Internet copyright violations but was criticized on the basis that it would make it easier for the U.S. government to shut down web sites accused of violating copyright and would place intolerable burdens on Internet providers.[67] After the bill's defeat, Swartz was the keynote speaker at the F2C:Freedom to Connect 2012 event in Washington, D.C., on May 21, 2012. In his speech, "How We Stopped SOPA", he said:

This bill ... shut down whole websites. Essentially, it stopped Americans from communicating entirely with certain groups....
I called all my friends, and we stayed up all night setting up a website for this new group, Demand Progress, with an online petition opposing this noxious bill.... We [got] ... 300,000 signers.... We met with the staff of members of Congress and pleaded with them.... And then it passed unanimously....
And then, suddenly, the process stopped. Senator Ron Wyden ... put a hold on the bill.[68][69]

He added, "We won this fight because everyone made themselves the hero of their own story. Everyone took it as their job to save this crucial freedom."[68][69] He was referring to a series of protests against the bill by numerous websites, described by the Electronic Frontier Foundation as the biggest protest in Internet history, with over 115,000 sites posting their opposition. Swartz also spoke on the topic at an event organized by ThoughtWorks.[70]

Wikipedia

Swartz at 2009 Boston Wikipedia Meetup

Swartz participated in Wikipedia since August 2003 under the username AaronSw.[71] In 2006, he ran unsuccessfully for the Wikimedia Foundation's Board of Trustees.[72]

In 2006, Swartz wrote an analysis of how Wikipedia articles are written, and concluded that the bulk of its content came from tens of thousands of occasional contributors, or "outsiders," each of whom made few other contributions to the site, while a core group of 500 to 1,000 regular editors tended to correct spelling and other formatting errors.[73] He said: "The formatters aid the contributors, not the other way around."[73][74] His conclusions, based on the analysis of edit histories of several randomly selected articles, contradicted the opinion of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales, who believed the core group of regular editors provided most of the content while thousands of others contributed to formatting issues. Swartz came to his conclusions by counting the number of characters editors added to particular articles, while Wales counted the total number of edits.[73]

WikiLeaks

In January 2013 shortly after he died, WikiLeaks said that Aaron Swartz had helped WikiLeaks and talked to Julian Assange in 2010 and 2011. WikiLeaks also said they had "strong reasons to believe, but cannot prove" he may have been a source, possibly breaking WikiLeaks' rules about source anonymity. WikiLeaks may have made the statements to imply that Swartz was targeted by the US Attorney's Office and Secret Service in order to get at WikiLeaks.[75][76]

United States v. Aaron Swartz case

According to state and federal authorities, Swartz used JSTOR, a digital repository,[77] to download a large number[note 2] of academic journal articles through MIT's computer network over the course of a few weeks in late 2010 and early 2011. Visitors to MIT's "open campus" were authorized to access JSTOR through its network;[78] Swartz, as a research fellow at Harvard University, also had a JSTOR account.[16]

The download

On September 25, 2010, the IP address 18.55.6.215, part of the MIT network, began sending hundreds of PDF download requests per minute to the JSTOR website, enough to slow the site's performance.[79] This prompted a block of the IP address. In the morning, another IP address, also from within the MIT network, began sending more PDF download requests, resulting in a temporary block on the firewall level of all MIT computers in the entire 18.0.0.0/8 range. A JSTOR employee emailed MIT on September 29, 2010:

Note that this was an extreme case. We typically suspend just one individual IP at a time and do that relatively infrequently (perhaps 6 on a busy day, from 7000+ institutional subscribers). In this case, we saw a performance hit on the live site, which I have only seen about 3 or 4 times in my 5 years here. The pattern used was to create a new session for each PDF download or every few, which was terribly efficient, but not terribly subtle. In the end, we saw over 200K sessions in one hour's time during the peak.[80]

According to authorities, Swartz downloaded the documents through a laptop connected to a networking switch in a controlled-access wiring closet at MIT.[15][16][81][82][83] The closet's door was kept unlocked, according to press reports.[78][84][85] When it was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to record Swartz; his computer was left untouched. The recording was stopped once Swartz was identified, but rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, JSTOR settled with him in June 2011; under the terms of the settlement, he surrendered the downloaded data.[86][87]

On July 30, 2013, JSTOR released 300 partially redacted documents used as incriminating evidence against Swartz, originally sent to the United States Attorney's Office in response to subpoenas in the case United States v. Aaron Swartz.[88]

(The following images are all excerpts from the 3,461-page PDF document.)

Arrest and prosecution

On the night of January 6, 2011, Swartz was arrested near the Harvard campus by MIT Police and a Secret Service agent, and arraigned in Cambridge District Court on two state charges of breaking and entering with intent to commit a felony.[14][15][83][95][96]

On July 11, 2011, he was indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[16][97]

On November 17, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a Middlesex County Superior Court grand jury on state charges of breaking and entering with intent, grand larceny, and unauthorized access to a computer network.[98][99] On December 16, 2011, state prosecutors filed a notice that they were dropping the two original charges,[15] and the charges listed in the November 17, 2011, indictment were dropped on March 8, 2012.[100] According to a spokesperson for the Middlesex County prosecutor, this was done to avoid impeding a federal prosecution headed by Stephen P. Heymann, supported by evidence provided by Secret Service agent Michael S. Pickett.[101][100]

On September 12, 2012, federal prosecutors filed a superseding indictment adding nine more felony counts, increasing Swartz's maximum criminal exposure to 50 years of imprisonment and $1 million in fines.[16][102][103] During plea negotiations with Swartz's attorneys, the prosecutors offered to recommend a sentence of six months in a low-security prison if Swartz pled guilty to 13 federal crimes. Swartz and his lead attorney rejected the deal, opting instead for a trial where prosecutors would be forced to justify their pursuit of him.[104][105]

The federal prosecution involved what was characterized by numerous critics (such as former Nixon White House counsel John Dean) as an "overcharging" 13-count indictment and "overzealous", "Nixonian" prosecution for alleged computer crimes, brought by then U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz.[106]

Swartz died by suicide on January 11, 2013.[107] After his death, federal prosecutors dropped the charges.[108][109] On December 4, 2013, due to a Freedom of Information Act suit by the investigations editor of Wired magazine, several documents related to the case were released by the Secret Service, including a video of Swartz entering the MIT network closet.[110]

Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings

External videos
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at The Great Hall of Cooper Union on YouTube, (transcript)
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at the Internet Archive on YouTube, (partial transcript)
video icon DC Memorial: Darrell Issa, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alan Grayson on YouTube

Death

On the evening of January 11, 2013, Swartz's girlfriend, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, found him dead in his Brooklyn apartment.[78][111][112] A spokeswoman for New York's Medical Examiner reported that he had hanged himself.[111][112][113][114] No suicide note was found.[115] Swartz's family and his partner created a memorial website on which they issued a statement, saying: "He used his prodigious skills as a programmer and technologist not to enrich himself but to make the Internet and the world a fairer, better place."[24]

Days before Swartz's funeral, Lawrence Lessig eulogized his friend and sometime-client in an essay, "Prosecutor as Bully." He decried the disproportionality of Swartz's prosecution and said, "The question this government needs to answer is why it was so necessary that Aaron Swartz be labeled a 'felon'. For in the 18 months of negotiations, that was what he was not willing to accept."[116] Cory Doctorow wrote, "Aaron had an unbeatable combination of political insight, technical skill, and intelligence about people and issues. I think he could have revolutionized American (and worldwide) politics. His legacy may still yet do so."[117]

Funeral and memorial gatherings

Aaron Swartz Memorial sign at Internet Archive headquarters, San Francisco, January 24, 2013
Aaron Swartz Memorial program at Internet Archive headquarters, San Francisco, January 24, 2013

Swartz's funeral services were held on January 15, 2013, at Central Avenue Synagogue in Highland Park, Illinois. Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web, delivered a eulogy.[118][119][120][121] The same day, The Wall Street Journal published a story based in part on an interview with Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman.[122] She told the Journal that Swartz lacked the money to pay for a trial and "it was too hard for him to ... make that part of his life go public" by asking for help. He was also distressed, she said, because two of his friends had just been subpoenaed and because he no longer believed that MIT would try to stop the prosecution.[122]

Several memorials followed soon afterward. On January 19, hundreds attended a memorial at the Cooper Union, speakers at which included Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, open source advocate Doc Searls, Creative Commons' Glenn Otis Brown, journalist Quinn Norton, Roy Singham of ThoughtWorks, and David Segal of Demand Progress.[123][124][125] On January 24, there was a memorial at the Internet Archive headquarters in San Francisco (video[126]) with speakers including Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alex Stamos, Brewster Kahle,[127] Peter Eckersley, and Carl Malamud.[128] On February 4, a memorial was held in the Cannon House Office Building on Capitol Hill;[129][130][131][132] speakers at this memorial included Senator Ron Wyden and Representatives Darrell Issa, Alan Grayson, and Jared Polis,[131][132] and other lawmakers in attendance included Senator Elizabeth Warren and Representatives Zoe Lofgren and Jan Schakowsky.[131][132] Harvey Silverglate was a featured speaker at a rally by Demand Progress in Swartz’s memory.[133] A memorial also took place on March 12 at the MIT Media Lab.[134]

Swartz's family recommended GiveWell for donations in his memory, an organization that Swartz admired, had collaborated with and was the sole beneficiary of his will.[135][136]

Response

U.S. Department of Justice

Carmen M. Ortiz, then U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts, "As a parent and a sister, I can only imagine the pain felt by the family and friends of Aaron Swartz, […] I must, however, make clear that this office's conduct was appropriate in bringing and handling this case."[137]

Family response

Aaron's death is not simply a personal tragedy. It is the product of a criminal justice system rife with intimidation and prosecutorial overreach. Decisions made by officials in the Massachusetts U.S. Attorney's office and at MIT contributed to his death.

— Statement by his family and his partner[138]

On January 12, 2013, Swartz's family and partner issued a statement criticizing the prosecutors and MIT.[138] Speaking at his son's funeral on January 15, Robert Swartz said, "Aaron was killed by the government, and MIT betrayed all of its basic principles."[139]

Tom Dolan, husband of U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz, whose office prosecuted Swartz's case, replied with criticism of the Swartz family: "Truly incredible that in their own son's obit they blame others for his death and make no mention of the 6-month offer."[140] This comment triggered some criticism; Esquire writer Charlie Pierce replied, "the glibness with which her husband and her defenders toss off a 'mere' six months in federal prison, low-security or not, is a further indication that something is seriously out of whack with the way our prosecutors think these days."[141]

MIT

MIT maintains an open-campus policy along with an "open network."[85][142] Two days after Swartz's death, MIT President L. Rafael Reif commissioned professor Hal Abelson to lead an analysis of MIT's options and decisions relating to Swartz's "legal struggles."[143][144] To help guide the fact-finding stage of the review, MIT created a website where community members could suggest questions and issues for the review to address.[145][146]

Swartz's attorneys requested that all pretrial discovery documents be made public, a move which MIT opposed.[147] Swartz allies have criticized MIT for its opposition to releasing the evidence without redactions.[148] On July 26, 2013, the Abelson panel submitted a 182-page report to MIT president, L. Rafael Reif, who authorized its public release on July 30.[149][150][151] The panel reported that MIT had not supported charges against Swartz and cleared the institution of wrongdoing. However, its report also noted that despite MIT's advocacy for open access culture at the institutional level and beyond, the university never extended that support to Swartz. The report revealed, for example, that while MIT considered the possibility of issuing a public statement about its position on the case, such a statement never materialized.[152]

Press

Aaron Swartz mural by Brooklyn graffiti artist BAMN

The Huffington Post reported that "Ortiz has faced significant backlash for pursuing the case against Swartz, including a petition to the White House to have her fired."[153] Other news outlets reported similarly.[154][155][156]

Reuters news agency called Swartz "an online icon" who "help[ed] to make a virtual mountain of information freely available to the public, including an estimated 19 million pages of federal court documents."[157] The Associated Press (AP) reported that Swartz's case "highlights society's uncertain, evolving view of how to treat people who break into computer systems and share data not to enrich themselves, but to make it available to others,"[67] and that JSTOR's lawyer, former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York Mary Jo White, had asked the lead prosecutor to drop the charges.[67]

As discussed by the editor Hrag Vartanian in Hyperallergic, Brooklyn, New York muralist BAMN ("By Any Means Necessary") created a mural of Swartz.[158] "Swartz was an amazing human being who fought tirelessly for our right to a free and open Internet," the artist explained. "He was much more than just the 'Reddit guy'."

Speaking on April 17, 2013, Yuval Noah Harari described Swartz as "the first martyr of the Freedom of Information movement". However, according to Harari, Swartz's stance did not illustrate the belief in the freedom of persons or speech but stemmed from the increasing belief among the young generation that above anything else, information should be free.[159]

Swartz's legacy has been reported as strengthening the open access to scholarship movement. In Illinois, his home state, Swartz's influence led state university faculties to adopt policies in favor of open access.[160]

Internet

Hacks

On January 13, 2013, members of Anonymous hacked two websites on the MIT domain, replacing them with tributes to Swartz that called on members of the Internet community to use his death as a rallying point for the open access movement. The banner included a list of demands for improvements in the U.S. copyright system, along with Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[161] On the night of January 18, 2013, MIT's e-mail system was taken offline for ten hours.[162] On January 22, e-mail sent to MIT was redirected by hackers Aush0k and TibitXimer to the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology. All other traffic to MIT was redirected to a computer at Harvard University that was publishing a statement headed "R.I.P Aaron Swartz,"[163] with text from a 2009 posting by Swartz,[164] accompanied by a chiptune version of "The Star-Spangled Banner". MIT regained full control after about seven hours.[165] In the early hours of January 26, 2013, the U.S. Sentencing Commission website, USSC.gov, was hacked by Anonymous.[166][167] The home page was replaced with an embedded YouTube video, Anonymous Operation Last Resort. The video statement said Swartz "faced an impossible choice".[168][169] A hacker downloaded "hundreds of thousands" of scientific-journal articles from a Swiss publisher's website and republished them on the open Web in Swartz's honor a week before the first anniversary of his death.[170]

Petition to the White House

After Swartz's death, more than 50,000 people signed an online petition[171] to the White House calling for the removal of Ortiz, "for overreach in the case of Aaron Swartz."[172] A similar petition[173] was submitted calling for prosecutor Stephen Heymann's firing.[174][175] In January 2015, two years after Swartz's death, the White House declined both petitions.[176]

Commemorations

On August 3, 2013, Swartz was posthumously inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame.[21] There was a hackathon held in Swartz' memory around the date of his birthday in 2013.[177][178] Over the weekend of November 8–10, 2013, inspired by Swartz's work and life, a second annual hackathon was held in at least 16 cities around the world.[179][180][181] Preliminary topics worked on at the 2013 Aaron Swartz Hackathon[182] were privacy and software tools, transparency, activism, access, legal fixes and a low-cost book scanner.[183] In January 2014, Lawrence Lessig led a walk across New Hampshire in honor of Swartz, rallying for campaign finance reform.[184][185]

In 2017, the Turkish-Dutch artist Ahmet Öğüt commemorated Swartz through a work entitled "Information Power to The People" which depicted his bust.[186]

A clay statue of Aaron Swartz at the Internet Archive

Legacy

Open Access

A long-time supporter of open access, Swartz wrote in his Guerilla Open Access Manifesto:[47]

The world's entire scientific ... heritage ... is increasingly being digitized and locked up by a handful of private corporations....

The Open Access Movement has fought valiantly to ensure that scientists do not sign their copyrights away but instead ensure their work is published on the Internet, under terms that allow anyone to access it.

Supporters of Swartz responded to news of his death with an effort called #PDFTribute to promote Open Access.[187][188] On January 12, Eva Vivalt, a development economist at the World Bank, began posting her academic articles online using the hashtag #pdftribute as a tribute to Swartz.[188][189][190] Scholars posted links to their works.[191] Swartz' story has exposed the topic of open access to scientific publications to wider audiences.[192][193] In Swartz' wake, many institutions and personalities have campaigned for open access to scientific knowledge.[194] Swartz's death prompted calls for more open access to scholarly data (e.g., open science data).[195][196] The Think Computer Foundation and the Center for Information Technology Policy (CITP) at Princeton University announced scholarships awarded in memory of Swartz.[197] In 2013, Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library Association's James Madison Award for being an "outspoken advocate for public participation in government and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles."[198][199] In March, the editor and editorial board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned en masse, citing a dispute with the journal's publisher, Routledge.[200] One board member wrote of a "crisis of conscience about publishing in a journal that was not open access" after the death of Swartz.[201][202] In 2002, Swartz had stated that when he died, he wanted all the contents of his hard drives made publicly available.[203][204]

Congress

Several members of the U.S. House of Representatives – Republican Darrell Issa and Democrats Zoe Lofgren and subsequent Colorado Governor Jared Polis – all on the House Judiciary Committee, raised questions regarding the government's handling of the case.

Calling the charges against him "ridiculous and trumped up," Polis said Swartz was a "martyr", whose death illustrated the need for Congress to limit the discretion of federal prosecutors.[205] Speaking at a memorial for Swartz on Capitol Hill, Issa said

Ultimately, knowledge belongs to all the people of the world.... Aaron understood that.... Our copyright laws were created for the purpose of promoting useful works, not hiding them.

Massachusetts Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren issued a statement saying "[Aaron's] advocacy for Internet freedom, social justice, and Wall Street reform demonstrated ... the power of his ideas ..."[206]

In a letter to Attorney General Eric Holder,[207] Texas Republican Senator John Cornyn asked, "On what basis did the U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts conclude that her office's conduct was 'appropriate'?" and "Was the prosecution of Mr. Swartz in any way retaliation for his exercise of his rights as a citizen under the Freedom of Information Act?"[208][209][210]

Congressional investigations

Issa, who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, announced that he would investigate the Justice Department's actions in prosecuting Swartz.[205] In a statement to The Huffington Post, he praised Swartz's work toward "open government and free access to the people." Issa's investigation has garnered some bipartisan support.[206]

On January 28, 2013, Issa and ranking committee member Elijah Cummings published a letter to U.S. Attorney General Holder, questioning why federal prosecutors had filed the superseding indictment.[103][211] On February 20, WBUR reported that Ortiz was expected to testify at an upcoming Oversight Committee hearing about her office's handling of the Swartz case.[212] On February 22, Associate Deputy Attorney General Steven Reich conducted a briefing for congressional staffers involved in the investigation.[213][214] They were told that Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto played a role in prosecutorial decision-making.[46][213][214] Congressional staffers left this briefing believing that prosecutors thought Swartz had to be convicted of a felony carrying at least a short prison sentence in order to justify having filed the case against him in the first place.[213][214]

Excoriating the Department of Justice as the "Department of Vengeance", Stinebrickner-Kauffman told the Guardian that the DOJ had erred in relying on Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto as an accurate indication of his beliefs by 2010. "He was no longer a single issue activist," she said. "He was into lots of things, from healthcare, to climate change to money in politics."[46]

On March 6, Holder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that the case was "a good use of prosecutorial discretion."[215] Stinebrickner-Kauffman issued a statement in reply, repeating and amplifying her claims of prosecutorial misconduct. Public documents, she wrote, reveal that prosecutor Stephen Heymann "instructed the Secret Service to seize and hold evidence without a warrant... lied to the judge about that fact in written briefs... [and] withheld exculpatory evidence... for over a year," violating his legal and ethical obligations to turn such evidence over to the defense.[216] On March 22, Senator Al Franken wrote Holder a letter expressing concerns, writing that "charging a young man like Mr. Swartz with federal offenses punishable by over 35 years of federal imprisonment seems remarkably aggressive – particularly when it appears that one of the principal aggrieved parties ... did not support a criminal prosecution."[217]

Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

In 2013, Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.) introduced a bill, Aaron's Law (H.R. 2454, S. 1196[218]) to exclude terms of service violations from the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.[219]

Lawrence Lessig wrote of the bill, "this is a critically important change.... The CFAA was the hook for the government's bullying.... This law would remove that hook. In a single line: no longer would it be a felony to breach a contract."[220] Professor Orin Kerr, a specialist in the nexus between computer law and criminal law, wrote that he had been arguing for precisely this sort of reform of the Act for years.[221] The ACLU, too, has called for reform of the CFAA to "remove the dangerously broad criminalization of online activity."[222] The EFF has mounted a campaign for these reforms.[223] Lessig's inaugural Chair lecture as Furman Professor of Law and Leadership was entitled Aaron's Laws: Law and Justice in a Digital Age; he dedicated the lecture to Swartz.[224][225][226][227]

The Aaron's Law bill stalled in committee. Brian Knappenberger alleges this was due to Oracle Corporation's financial interest in maintaining the status quo.[228]

Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act

The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR) is a bill that would mandate earlier public release of taxpayer-funded research. FASTR has been described as "The Other Aaron's Law."[229]

Senator Ron Wyden (D-Ore.) and Senator John Cornyn (R-Tex.) introduced the Senate version in 2013, 2015, and 2017 while the bill was introduced to the House by Reps. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.), Mike Doyle (D-Pa.) and Kevin Yoder (R-Kans.). Senator Wyden wrote of the bill, "the FASTR act provides that access to taxpayer funded research should never be hidden behind a paywall."[230]

While the legislation had not passed as of August 2017, it helped to prompt some motion toward more open access on the part of the US administration. Shortly after the bill's original introduction, the Office of Science and Technology Policy directed "each Federal agency with over $100 million in annual conduct of research and development expenditures to develop a plan to support increased public access to the results of research funded by the Federal Government."[231]

Aaron Swartz Day

Since 2013 there has been a yearly event called Aaron Swartz day where people organize hackathons and there are live streamed talks related to issues Aaron was passionate about like open access. Past speakers include Chelsea Manning, Barrett Brown, Trevor Timm from Freedom of the Press Foundation, Cory Doctorow, Cindy Cohn, Jason Leopold, and Brewster Kahle.

Media

Swartz has been featured in various works of art and has posthumously received dedications from numerous artists. In 2013, Kenneth Goldsmith dedicated his "Printing out the Internet" exhibition to Swartz.[232][233] There are also dedicated biographical films for Aaron:

The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz

On January 11, 2014, marking the first anniversary of his death, a preview was released of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz,[234] a documentary about Swartz, the NSA and SOPA.[235][236] The film was officially released at the January 2014 Sundance Film Festival.[237] Democracy Now! covered the release of the documentary, as well as Swartz's life and legal case, in a sprawling interview with director Brian Knappenberger, Swartz's father, brother, and his attorney.[238] The documentary is released under a Creative Commons License;[239][240] it debuted in theaters and on-demand in June 2014.[241]

Mashable called the documentary "a powerful homage to Aaron Swartz". Its debut at Sundance received a standing ovation. Mashable printed, "With the help of experts, The Internet's Own Boy makes a clear argument: Swartz unjustly became a victim of the rights and freedoms for which he stood."[242] The Hollywood Reporter described it as a "heartbreaking" story of a "tech wunderkind persecuted by the U.S. government", and a must-see "for anyone who knows enough to care about the way laws govern information transfer in the digital age".[243]

Killswitch

In October 2014, Killswitch, a documentary film featuring Swartz, as well as Lawrence Lessig, Tim Wu, and Edward Snowden, received its world premiere at the Woodstock Film Festival, where it won the award for Best Editing. The film focuses on Swartz's role in advocating for internet freedoms.[244][245]

In February 2015, Killswitch was invited to screen at the Capitol Visitor's Center in Washington, D.C., by Congressman Alan Grayson. The event was held on the eve of the Federal Communications Commission's historic decision on Net Neutrality. Congressman Grayson, Lawrence Lessig, and Free Press CEO Craig Aaron spoke about Swartz and his fight on behalf of a free and open Internet at the event.[246][247]

Congressman Grayson states that Killswitch is "one of the most honest accounts of the battle to control the Internet – and access to information itself."[246] Richard von Busack of the Metro Silicon Valley writes of Killswitch, "Some of the most lapidary use of found footage this side of The Atomic Café".[244] Fred Swegles of the Orange County Register remarks, "Anyone who values unfettered access to online information is apt to be captivated by Killswitch, a gripping and fast-paced documentary."[245] Kathy Gill of GeekWire asserts that "Killswitch is much more than a dry recitation of technical history. Director Ali Akbarzadeh, producer Jeff Horn, and writer Chris Dollar created a human-centered story. A large part of that connection comes from Lessig and his relationship with Swartz."[248]

Other films

Another biographical film about Swartz, Think Aaron, is being developed by HBO Films as of 2020.[249]

Works

Specifications

  • Markdown: In collaboration with John Gruber, Swartz co-created Markdown[250][251] – a lightweight markup language for generating HTML – and was the author of its html2text translator. The syntax for Markdown was influenced by Swartz's earlier atx language (2002),[252] which today is primarily remembered for its syntax for specifying headers, known as atx-style headers:[253] Markdown itself remains in widespread use, with websites such as Reddit and GitHub using it.
  • RDF/XML at W3C: In 2001, Swartz joined the RDFCore working group at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),[254] where he authored RFC 3870, Application/RDF+XML Media Type Registration. The document described a new media type, "RDF/XML", designed to support the Semantic Web.[255]

Software

Publications

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Swartz' involvement in Reddit is debated. He is considered the co-founder of Reddit by Y Combinator owner Paul Graham as a result of the merger of Swartz' project Infogami and Reddit.[3] With the merger of Infogami and Reddit, Swartz became a co-owner and director of parent company Not A Bug, Inc., along with Reddit cofounders Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian.[4] Ohanian considers Swartz a co-owner of Reddit.[5][6]
  2. ↑ The MIT network administration office told MIT police that "approximately 70 gigabytes of data had been downloaded, 98% of which was from JSTOR."[15] The first federal indictment alleged "approximately 4.8 million articles", "1.7 million" of which "were made available by independent publishers for purchase through JSTOR's Publisher Sales Service."[16] The subsequent DOJ press release alleged "over four million articles". The superseding indictment removed the estimates and instead characterized the amount as "a major portion of the total archive in which JSTOR had invested."[16]

References

  1. 1 2 3 Yearwood, Pauline (February 22, 2013). "Brilliant life, tragic death". Chicago Jewish News. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Aaron Hillel Swartz was not depressed or suicidal ... a rabbi's wife who has known him since he was a child says.... At age 13 he won the ArsDigita Prize, a competition for young people who create noncommercial websites....
  2. 1 2 Skaggs, Paula (January 16, 2013). "Aaron Swartz Remembered as Internet Activist who Changed the World". Patch. Archived from the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
  3. ↑ Lagorio-Chafkin, Christine (2018). We Are the Nerds: The Birth and Tumultuous Life of Reddit, the Internet's Culture Laboratory. Hachette Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-0316435406. Archived from the original on August 19, 2020. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
  4. ↑ "Not A Bug, Inc.: Private company information". Bloomberg Business. October 31, 2006. Archived from the original on June 9, 2015. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
  5. 1 2 Singel, Ryan (July 19, 2011). "Feds Charge Activist as Hacker for Downloading Millions of Academic Articles". Wired. Archived from the original on January 15, 2013. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  6. ↑ "There was a third 'co-founder' of reddit", Today I Learned, Reddit, October 18, 2010, archived from the original on April 21, 2017, retrieved August 25, 2017, Aaron isn't a founder of reddit.
  7. ↑
  8. ↑
  9. ↑ Swartz, Aaron. "Sociology or Anthropology". Raw Thought. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  10. ↑ Swartz, Aaron (May 13, 2008). "Simplistic Sociological Functionalism". Raw Thought. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  11. ↑ Anon (2022). "What's the most important problem in the world? Are you working on it?". ycombinator.com. Hacker News. What is the most important thing you could be working on in the world right now? ... And if you're not working on that, why aren't you? Swartz may have been quoting Richard Hamming's talk You and Your Research
  12. 1 2 Seidman, Bianca (July 22, 2011). "Internet activist charged with hacking into MIT network". Arlington, Va.: Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017. [Swartz] was in the middle of a fellowship at Harvard's Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics, in its Lab on Institutional Corruption
  13. 1 2 "Lab Fellows 2010–2011: Aaron Swartz". Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics. Harvard University. 2010. Archived from the original on May 29, 2013. During the fellowship year, he will conduct experimental and ethnographic studies of the political system to prepare a monograph on the mechanisms of political corruption.
  14. 1 2 Gerstein, Josh (July 22, 2011). "MIT also pressing charges against hacking suspect". Politico. Archived from the original on September 12, 2015. Retrieved August 27, 2019. [Swartz's] alleged use of MIT facilities and Web connections to access the JSTOR database ... resulted in two state felony charges for breaking into a 'depository' and breaking & entering in the daytime, according to local prosecutors.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Commonwealth v. Swartz, 11-52CR73 & 11-52CR75, MIT Police Incident Report 11-351 (Mass. Dist. Ct. nolle prosequi December 16, 2011) ("Captain Albert P[...] and Special Agent Pickett were able to apprehend the suspect at 24 Lee Street.... He was arrested for two counts of Breaking and Entering in the daytime with the intent to commit a felony....").
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Indictment, USA v. Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260, No. 2 (D.Mass. July 14, 2011)". MIT. July 14, 2011. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2013. Superseded by "Superseding Indictment, USA v. Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260, No. 53 (D.Mass. September 12, 2012)". Docketalarm.com. September 12, 2012. Archived from the original on June 11, 2020. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
  17. ↑ US Attorney's Office District of Massachusetts (July 19, 2011). "Alleged Hacker Charged With Stealing Over Four Million Documents from MIT Network" (Press release). Archived from the original on May 26, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2013.
  18. ↑ Timothy, Lee. "Aaron Swartz and the Corrupt Practice of Plea Bargaining". Forbes. Archived from the original on October 7, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  19. ↑ "Aaron Swartz, Tech Prodigy and Internet Activist, Is Dead at 26". Time. January 13, 2013. Archived from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  20. ↑ "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26". BBC News. January 13, 2013. Archived from the original on January 13, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  21. 1 2 "Internet Hall of Fame Announces 2013 Inductees". Internet Hall of Fame. June 26, 2013. Archived from the original on March 21, 2020. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
  22. ↑ "The Brilliant Life and Tragic Death of Aaron Swartz". Rolling Stone. February 15, 2013. Archived from the original on October 4, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
  23. ↑ "By Eternity Solomon, January 13, 2013, Israeli Life USA". January 13, 2013. Archived from the original on June 17, 2018. Retrieved February 7, 2021.
  24. 1 2 Nelson, Valerie J. (January 12, 2013). "Aaron Swartz dies at 26; Internet folk hero founded Reddit". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 13, 2014. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
  25. ↑ "'Repairing the World' Was Aaron Swartz's Calling". Haaretz. Retrieved September 19, 2021.
  26. 1 2 3 Swartz, Aaron (September 27, 2007). "How to get a job like mine". (blog). Aaron Swartz. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. We negotiated for months.... I started going crazy from having to think so much about money.... The company almost fell apart before the deal went through.
  27. ↑ "Reddit co-creator Aaron Swartz dies from suicide". Chicago Tribune. January 13, 2013. Archived from the original on April 9, 2016. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
  28. ↑ Skaggs, Paula (January 15, 2013). "Internet activist Aaron Swartz's teachers remember 'brilliant' student". Patch. Northbrook, Ill. Archived from the original on November 4, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2015. Swartz ... attended North Shore Country Day School through 9th grade.
  29. ↑ Swartz, Aaron (January 14, 2002). "It's always cool to run..." Weblog. Aaron Swartz. Archived from the original on October 31, 2018. Retrieved March 23, 2013. I would have been in 10th grade this year.... Now I'm taking a couple of classes at a local college.
  30. ↑ "The Brilliant Life and Tragic Death of Aaron Swarz". Penske Media Corporation. February 15, 2013. Archived from the original on July 27, 2018. Retrieved April 14, 2021.
  31. ↑ "Second ArsDigita Prize 2000 Finalists and Winners". December 1, 2001. Archived from the original on December 1, 2001. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  32. ↑ Schofield, Jack (January 13, 2013). "Aaron Swartz obituary". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2016. At 13 [he] won an ArsDigita prize for creating a non-commercial website.
  33. ↑ "RSS creator Aaron Swartz dead at 26". Harvard Magazine. January 14, 2013. Archived from the original on November 28, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2014. Swartz helped create RSS—a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works (blog entries, news headlines, ...) in a standardized format—at the age of 14.
  34. ↑ Lessig, Lawrence (January 12, 2013). "Remembering Aaron Swartz". Creative Commons. Archived from the original on December 4, 2015. Retrieved November 1, 2017. Aaron was one of the early architects of Creative Commons. As a teenager, he helped design the code layer to our licenses...
  35. ↑ Sekhri, Aaron (January 14, 2013). "Aaron Swartz, prodigy and drop-out, takes own life". The Stanford Daily. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
  36. 1 2 Ryan, Singel (September 13, 2005). "Stars Rise at Startup Summer Camp". Wired. Archived from the original on November 30, 2014. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
  37. ↑ Grehan, Rick (August 10, 2011). "Pillars of Python: Web.py Web framework". InfoWorld. Archived from the original on November 28, 2017. Retrieved May 29, 2015. Web.py, the brainchild of Aaron Swartz, who developed it while working at Reddit.com, describes itself as a 'minimalist's framework.' ... Test Center Scorecard: Capability 7; Ease of Development 9; Documentation 7; ...; Overall Score 7.6, Good.
  38. 1 2 Swartz, Aaron (2007). "Introducing Infogami". Infogami. CondeNet. Archived from the original on December 24, 2007.
  39. ↑ "A passion for your users brings good karma: (Interview with) Alexis Ohanian, co-founder of reddit.com". StartupStories. November 11, 2006. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007.
  40. ↑ "Breaking News: Condé Nast/Wired Acquires Reddit". Techcrunch. October 31, 2006. Archived from the original on February 15, 2018. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
  41. ↑ Lenssen, Philipp (2007). "A Chat with Aaron Swartz". Google Blogoscoped. Archived from the original on April 27, 2010. Retrieved May 11, 2010.
  42. ↑ "Aaron Swartz's Jottit has been officially released". Reddit. 2007. Archived from the original on April 18, 2016. Retrieved October 20, 2015.
  43. ↑ Klein, Sam (July 24, 2011). "Aaron Swartz vs. United States". The Longest Now. Weblogs at Harvard Law School. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013. He founded watchdog.net to aggregate ... data about politicians – including where their money comes from.
  44. ↑ "The team". Watchdog.net. Archived from the original on December 23, 2008. Founder Aaron Swartz ... We're funded by a grant from the Sunlight Network and the Sunlight Foundation.
  45. ↑ Norton, Quinn (March 3, 2013). "Life inside the Aaron Swartz investigation". The Atlantic. D.C. Archived from the original on June 17, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
  46. 1 2 3 McVeigh, Karen, Aaron Swartz's partner accuses US of delaying investigation into prosecution Archived March 11, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, March 1, 2013. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  47. 1 2 Swartz, Aaron (July 2008). "Guerilla Open Access Manifesto". Internet Archive. We need to buy secret databases and put them on the Web. We need to download scientific journals and upload them to file sharing networks.
  48. ↑ Murphy, Samantha (July 22, 2011). "'Guerilla activist' releases 18,000 scientific papers". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved February 6, 2013. In a 2008 'Guerilla Open Access Manifesto,' Swartz called for activists to 'fight back' against services that held academic papers hostage behind paywalls.
  49. ↑ Leopold, Jason (January 18, 2013). "Aaron Swartz's FOIA Requests Shed Light on His Struggle". The Public Record. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
  50. ↑ "FOI Request: Records related to Bradley Manning". Muckrock. February 9, 2011. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
  51. 1 2 3 Lee, Timothy B.,The inside story of Aaron Swartz's campaign to liberate court filings Archived June 16, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, Ars Technica, February 8, 2013. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
  52. ↑ Will Wrigley (February 7, 2013). "Darrell Issa Praises Aaron Swartz, Internet Freedom at Memorial". HuffPost. Archived from the original on February 11, 2013. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
  53. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Schwartz, John (February 12, 2009). "An Effort to Upgrade a Court Archive System to Free and Easy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 21, 2018. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 Singeln, Ryan (October 5, 2009). "FBI Investigated Coder for Liberating Paywalled Court Records". Wired. Archived from the original on February 11, 2014. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  55. ↑ Johnson, Bobbie (November 11, 2009). "Recap: Cracking open US courtrooms". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on October 8, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2016.
  56. ↑ "RECAP Project — Turning PACER Around Since 2009". Free Law Project. Retrieved December 20, 2022.
  57. ↑ Malamud, Carl (January 24, 2013). Aaron's Army (Speech). Memorial for Aaron Swartz at the Internet Archive. San Francisco. Archived from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
  58. ↑ Malamud, Carl (March 30, 2013). "On Crime and Access to Knowledge: An Unpublished Essay". Archived from the original on March 26, 2016. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
  59. ↑ "Timothy Lee (Bio)". Archived from the original on October 8, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2016.
  60. ↑ "Progressive Change Campaign Committee Statement on the Passing of Aaron Swartz". Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
  61. ↑ "How to Get a Job Like Mine (Aaron Swartz's Raw Thought)". aaronsw.com. Archived from the original on October 31, 2018. Retrieved July 11, 2013.
  62. ↑ BoldProgressives (September 23, 2009). "Victory! HonorKennedy.com". Archived from the original on April 23, 2017. Retrieved November 15, 2013 – via YouTube.
  63. ↑ Eckersley, Peter (January 12, 2013). "Farewell to Aaron Swartz, an Extraordinary Hacker and activist". Deeplinks Blog. Electronic Frontier Foundation. Archived from the original on November 25, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2013.
  64. ↑ Matthews, Laura (July 19, 2011). "Who is Aaron Swartz, the JSTOR MIT Hacker?". International Business Times. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  65. ↑ "Our Mission" (blog). Demand Progress. Archived from the original on October 29, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
  66. 1 2 Sleight, Graham (February 1, 2013). "'Homeland,' by Cory Doctorow". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 16, 2018. Retrieved August 23, 2017. As Doctorow made clear in his eloquent obituary, he drew on advice from Swartz in setting out how his protagonist could use the information now available about voters to create a grass-roots anti-establishment political campaign. ... One of the book's two afterwords is by Swartz.
  67. 1 2 3 Wagner, Daniel; Verena Dobnik (January 13, 2013). "Swartz' death fuels debate over computer crime". Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 30, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2013. JSTOR's attorney, Mary Jo White – formerly the top federal prosecutor in Manhattan – had called the lead Boston prosecutor in the case and asked him to drop it, said Peters.
  68. 1 2 Swartz, Aaron (May 21, 2012). "How we stopped SOPA" (video). Keynote address at the Freedom To Connect 2012 conference. New York: Democracy Now!. Archived from the original on November 1, 2018. Retrieved January 27, 2013. [T]he 'Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeiting Act' ... was introduced on September 20th, 2010.... And [then] it began being called PIPA, and eventually SOPA.
  69. 1 2 Aaron Swartz (interviewee) & Amy Goodman (May 21, 2012). Freedom to Connect: Aaron Swartz (1986–2013) on victory to save open Internet, fight online censors (Video). N.Y.C.: Democracy Now. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013.
  70. ↑ Swartz, Aaron (August 16, 2012). "How we stopped SOPA" (video). Speech at ThoughtWorks New York. Yahoo!. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved November 15, 2013.
  71. ↑ "Remembering Aaron Swartz". thewikipedian.net. January 15, 2013. Archived from the original on January 13, 2018. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
  72. ↑ "Wikimedia Foundation elections/Board elections/2006/Results/en". Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees Election. September 24, 2006. 6th – 423 (18%) – AaronSw (Aaron Swartz)
  73. 1 2 3 Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Who Writes Wikipedia?". Raw Thought. Archived from the original on August 3, 2014. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  74. ↑ Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?". Business Insider. Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  75. ↑ Carmody, Tim (January 19, 2013). "WikiLeaks claims Aaron Swartz was an ally and possible source, breaking anonymity". The Verge. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
  76. ↑ "WikiLeaks says Aaron Swartz may have been a 'source'". CNET. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
  77. ↑ "Terms and Conditions of Use". JSTOR. New York: ITHAKA. January 15, 2013. Archived from the original on September 16, 2015. Retrieved August 29, 2017. JSTOR's integrated digital platform is a trusted digital repository providing for long-term preservation and access to ... scholarly materials: journal issues ...; manuscripts and monographs; ...; spatial/geographic information systems data; plant specimens; ...
  78. 1 2 3 Larissa MacFarquhar (March 11, 2013). "Requiem for a dream: The tragedy of Aaron Swartz". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014. [Swartz] wrote a script that instructed his computer to download articles continuously, something that was forbidden by JSTOR's terms of service.... He spoofed the computer's address.... This happened several times. MIT traced the requests to his laptop, which he had hidden in an unlocked closet.
  79. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz. Page 136" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
  80. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz. Page 134" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
  81. ↑ Lindsay, Jay (July 19, 2011). "Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers". Boston. Associated Press. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
  82. ↑ "JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case". JSTOR. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  83. 1 2 Cohen, Noam (January 20, 2013). "How M.I.T. ensnared a hacker, bucking a freewheeling culture". The New York Times. p. A1. Archived from the original on October 6, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2017. 'Suspect is seen on camera entering network closet' [in an unlocked building] ... Within a mile of MIT ... he was stopped by an MIT police captain and [U.S. Secret Service agent] Pickett.
  84. ↑ Peters, Justin (February 7, 2013). "The Idealist: Aaron Swartz wanted to save the world. Why couldn't he save himself?". Slate. N.Y.C. 6. Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved February 10, 2013. The superseding indictment ... claimed that Swartz had 'contrived to break into a restricted-access wiring closet at MIT.' But the closet door had been unlocked—and remained unlocked even after the university and authorities were aware that someone had been in there trying to access the school's network.
  85. 1 2 Merritt, Jeralyn (January 14, 2013). "MIT to conduct internal probe on its role in Aaron Swartz case". TalkLeft (blog). Att'y Jeralyn Merritt. Archived from the original on October 16, 2017. Retrieved April 7, 2013. The wiring closet was not locked and was accessible to the public. If you look at the pictures supplied by the Government, you can see graffiti on one wall.
  86. ↑ "JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case". JSTOR. July 19, 2011. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  87. ↑ "Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer, Found Dead Amid Prosecutor 'Bullying' In Unconventional Case". HuffPost. January 12, 2013. Archived from the original on May 29, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
  88. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
  89. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz. Page 3142" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
  90. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz. Page 3143" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
  91. ↑ JSTOR (July 30, 2013). "JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz. Page 3127" (PDF-1.6). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017 – via archive.org/details/JSTORSwartzEvidenceAllDocs Archive.org].
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Further reading

External videos
video icon Presentation by Justin Peters on The Idealist, June 11, 2016, C-SPAN

Documentary

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