Emergence of Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu

Both kingdoms emerged in the 1360s. The central-dry zone-based Ava was founded in 1365 as a remnant of the Pinya and Sagaing kingdoms, after Maw raids left the two kingdoms in tatters.^[16][17] When Ava's founder Thado Minbya died in 1367, his successor Swa Saw Ke inherited a largely embryonic polity that controlled few peripheral regions.^[18][19] On the southern coast, the polity based out of Pegu (Bago) came into being as a remnant of the Martaban Kingdom in 1369/70 when King Binnya U was forced to retreat to the hitherto provincial capital by his cousins Byattaba and Laukpya, who had waged a rebellion since 1364.^[20][21]

Early relations

It was during these turbulent times that the first peace treaty between the two rump kingdoms was signed in 1370/71. The initial proposal came from U who wanted to keep his northern border quiet. Swa, who wanted U's assurance that Pegu would not help the former southern vassals of Pinya, accepted.^[22][23][24]

The treaty allowed both kings to focus on their domestic struggles. Though U regained Donwun from Byattaba in 1371,^[25] the king was soon forced to make peace when his cousins sought an intervention by the kingdom of Lan Na (in present-day northern Thailand). The king agreed to recognize them as the autonomous viceroys of Martaban and Myaungmya provinces, respectively; in return, the brothers agreed to nominally recognize U as their sovereign.^{[note 4][26]}

Swa was far more successful in expanding his authority. He promptly went to war with Maw, and by 1373 had seized Kale (Kalay) and Myedu from Maw.^{[27][28][note 5]} Later in 1373 (or early 1374), he placed his nominee on the vacant throne of Arakan.^[29] He then plotted to replace Governor Pyanchi I of Toungoo, who he felt was too close to Pegu.^[29][30]

Deterioration of relations

The relations between the kingdoms suddenly cooled in 1375 when Pyanchi I revolted. According to the main royal chronicles, Pegu sent a sizable military force to Toungoo (Taungoo) to aid the rebellion. Ava had to send three separate expeditions to regain Toungoo in 1375–1376.^[31][32] However, the Razadarit Ayedawbon, the chronicle that covers the early Hanthawaddy period from the Hanthawaddy perspective, makes no mention of Pegu's support of Toungoo in any way during this period; instead, it portrays U as an ailing king whose effective authority amounted to a single province, not one capable of interfering in others' affairs.^{[note 6]} In any case, it was only in 1383 when Pegu was amidst a serious rebellion that Ava was able to install its preferred governor at the border state.^[33][34] The Ava regime watched on as Pegu's political instabilities worsened after Binnya U's death in 1384. Their subsequent decision to interfere in the southern kingdom's affairs would lead to war.^[35]

Instabilities in Pegu

Pegu's succession crisis began in May 1383 when Prince Binnya Nwe raised a rebellion against his ailing father (and his aunt and adoptive mother Princess Maha Dewi). The young price went on to seize the throne, after U's death in January 1384.^[36] However, the 16-year-old new king, now known by his regnal title Razadarit, could not get any of the key vassals outside his home province to acknowledge him. Governor Smin Sam Lek of Donwun, a Binnya U loyalist, deemed Razadarit a mere usurper while viceroys Byattaba of Martaban and Laukpya of Myaungmya, who had indirectly supported the prince's rebellion, refused to submit now that the rebellion had succeeded.^[37][38]

Laukpya's request

Laukpya in particular wanted to take over Pegu. Since he could not take on the most populous province on his own, he considered seeking Ava's help, just as the brothers sought Lan Na's help in the 1370s. However, Byattaba, whose territory bordered the Tai states to the east, demurred. Laukpya ultimately decided to act on his own, and sent an embassy to Ava in 1385, offering to hold Pegu as a vassal state.^[39][40][41]

His proposal greatly resonated with the Ava court, which was dealing with a developing situation in Arakan: Saw Me, the latest Ava-nominated king, had been driven out. Ultimately, the Ava court, led by Chief Minister Min Yaza, assessed Pegu as an easier mission.^[40][42] Swa, who wanted to restore the erstwhile Pagan Empire, accepted Laukpya's proposal, touching off what would become "the forty years' war between Ava and Pegu."^[35]

Ava battle plan

King Swa and his court saw little difficulty in taking over Pegu. Their battle plan reflected that belief: Swa assigned his two young sons with no prior military experience—Crown Prince Tarabya, who was about to turn 17, and Prince Min Swe of Pyinzi, who had recently turned 12^{[note 7]}—to lead two relatively small armies. The king did appoint two of his best generals, including Thilawa of Yamethin and Theinkhathu of Sagu,^[43] to advise the princes. The plan called for a three-pronged attack. The first army led by the crown prince (9 regiments, 7,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, 20 war elephants) was to invade the Sittaung river valley from Toungoo. Prince Swe's second army (9 regiments, 6,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, 20 elephants) was to invade from Tharrawaddy along the Hlaing river, and join up with Laukpya's Myaungmya flotilla invading from the delta around Dagon (modern downtown Yangon) in a pincer movement towards Pegu.^[1][2][3]

Pegu battle plan

Pegu's battle plan was shaped by its sheer lack of manpower. A desperate Razadarit sent a last-minute mission to Donwun in search of levies but Sam Lek ignored the request.^[44] In the end, the Pegu command had no choice but to defend from a few key fortified towns en route to the capital. On the northeastern front along the Sittaung river, Hanthawaddy's main defenses began only at Fort Pankyaw (modern Waw),^{[note 8]} about 40 km (25 mi) northeast of Pegu. On the northwestern and western fronts, a series of smaller forts at Hlaing (modern Taikkyi), Hmawbi, and Dagon defended the route towards Pegu.^[45][46]

Invasion

A depiction of Crown Prince Tarabya, who led the first invasion

Ava battle plan

The new battle plan differed from the previous plan in two key aspects. First, the invasion forces were now two and a half times larger. Swa had called up levies from around the kingdom, raising over 29,000 troops, including two Shan regiments. Secondly, the path of invasion for both the land and riverine forces would now be along the Irrawaddy front. The land army (11 regiments, 12,000 infantry, 600 cavalry, 40 elephants) commanded by Crown Prince Tarabya was to invade by land from Tharrawaddy. The riverine force (10 regiments, 17,000 troops, 100 transport boats/ships, 120 war boats) commanded by King Swa himself would attack the southern ports via the delta. Prince Min Swe was left out of the campaign; the prince was assigned to guard the capital Ava, with four regiments under his command.^[4][5] In preparation, the combined invasion forces met up in Prome (Pyay). Supplies had been shipped there as well. Then, Swa's riverine force then sailed down to a place called Ahlwe (near Myanaung). There, Laukpya's flotilla came up to join the riverine force.^[4][5]

Pegu battle plan

Razadarit was prepared. Though he had raised more troops—his main army alone now consisted of 6,000 troops and 20 elephants^[56]— his plan again was to outlast the invaders from inside the walls. All the key towns along the invasion route, including Hlaing, Hmawbi, Dagon and Dala (modern Twante) were heavily fortified. To defend Hlaing, the first fort, he assigned Dein Mani-Yut and Smin Ye-Thin-Yan, with 500 troops.^[12][57]

Invasion

An 18th-century painting of a Burmese war boat on the Irrawaddy River

In late 1386, Ava forces invaded by the Irrawaddy and by land.^[4][56] Tarabya's army went on to attack the first two Hanthawaddy garrisons, Hlaing (Taikkyi) and Hmawbi. Two vanguard regiments, led by Thray Thinkhaya of Pinle and Thray Waduna of Pinya, took Hmawbi but Tarabya's main army could not take Hlaing (Taikkyi). The crown prince launched three frontal assaults but Dein's defenses held. One month into the campaign, Tarabya was forced to continue the siege. Meanwhile, Swa's riverine forces were in the same situation. They too were laying siege to a string of southern ports at the edge of the delta, Dagon and Dala in particular. Yet, despite the overwhelming numerical superiority, Ava forces could not take any of the fortified towns. The uneasy status quo ensued for the next few months, and many of the Ava troops began suffering from disease.^[56][13]

Pegu's counterattack

It was during the stalemate that Razadarit launched a surprise counterattack on Hmawbi c. April 1387.^{[note 11]} When Razadarit showed up near the fort with a small battalion (70 troops), the fort's commanders, Thray Thinkhaya and Thray Waduna, thought it was an itinerant detachment, and decided to come out of the gates to chase them away. But the commanders had not considered that the detachment was a decoy. The Hanthawaddy army was 6,000 strong, and outnumbered the fort's defenses by three to one. When the Ava troops voluntarily came out of the gates, Hanthawaddy forces, led by the 19-year-old king on his war elephant, pounced. Total carnage ensued. The two Ava commanders on their war elephants managed to escape but most of Ava troops could not and were slaughtered. The fort itself was burned to the ground.^[56][13]

Withdrawal

The fall of Hmawbi foretold the fate of the campaign. Chronicles report that King Swa was visibly shaken by the news but he was not yet ready to call off the campaign.^[56][13] He reshuffled the troops to relieve the ailing men but it did not change the situation in any way. One month later, with the rainy season approaching, Swa finally agreed to withdraw. Like Tarabya before him, Swa too vowed to return.^[56][57]

Having survived the second invasion, the Hanthawaddy command was now more self-assured. At Pegu, a confident Hanthawaddy king vowed in front of Ava prisoners of war that King Swa mistakenly refused his offer of peace, and that the king of Ava himself would be his next target.^[56][13]

Resumption of Ava–Maw war

Ava's stunning failures in the south did not go unnoticed. In 1387, Maw, which had not challenged Ava's northern border since 1373, began raiding Kale's territory, prompting the sawbwa of Kale to request help from Swa. After weighing the competing demands, Swa concluded that the developing situation must be taken care of first, and ordered an expedition to the north in the following 1387–1388 dry season. Like its recent southern campaigns, this too was inconclusive. The Ava army advanced as far north as Mohnyin but could not root out the instigators. The conflict remained unresolved for another two years.^[58]

Pegu's conquest of the Martaban province

Meanwhile, Ava's problems in the north gave Pegu an opening. Realizing that they needed to control as many resources as possible to fend off Ava in the long run, Razadarit and his staff set out to reunify the provinces.^[59]

Their initial goal was to gain control of the northern Martaban province, centered around Donwun, the ancestral home of the dynasty. In late 1387, Razadarit marched to Donwun, and asked Governor Sam Lek who was not allied with Byattaba, to come over to his side. But when Sam Lek refused, Razadarit occupied the nearby towns of Tari and Than-Maung to isolate Donwun. This drew Byattaba into the conflict. The ruler of Martaban sent an army to retake the towns but Hanthawaddy defenses led by Than-Byat and Than-Lon repelled the attacks.^[60][38]

After the Martaban attacks died down, the Pegu army returned to Donwun. Although Sam Lek still refused to submit, Razadarit managed to take the town after a ruse led to the opening of the town's gates.^{[note 12][38]} When the army marched to the next town of Lagun Byi, the ruler of Than-Maung, who had submitted only months earlier, revolted. The army had to retake Than-Maung after it had taken Lagun Byi. In the end, Razadarit had conquered all the northern districts of Martaban; only the southern districts—the city of Martaban and its satellite Moulmein—remained out of his reach.^[61]

Martaban was next. His father had not been able to retake the heavily fortified city (and former royal capital) from Byattaba in 1364–1371 but Razadarit was undeterred. In the following dry season, he sent an army of seven regiments to Martaban.^[62] Instead of defending from the inside of his city's fortifications, Byattaba decided to ambush the Hanthawaddy army en route. In the subsequent battle, the Hanthawaddy army was nearly defeated but the two rearguard regiments led by Than-Byat and Dein managed to drive out Byattaba and his senior staff from the battlefield. The army then raced to Martaban where the city's defenders surrendered without a fight. The rest of the southern vassals also submitted, giving Razadarit control of the entire Martaban province.^[63] The campaign ended in 1388 (or early 1389).^{[note 13]}

Prelude

Despite Pegu's growing strength, Ava did not act. It sent no help to Laukpya even as Razadarit prepared to invade the delta. For his part, Laukpya was prepared to take on Razadarit, even without Ava's help. He had heavily fortified the province's two main cities, Myaungmya and Bassein, and appointed his ablest sons—Ma Pyit-Nwe at Myaungmya, and Lauk Shein, Bya Kun, and Bya Kyin^{[note 14]} at Bassein—to defend them. Furthermore, he had also secretly persuaded Governor Nyi Kan-Kaung of Dala (modern Twante), the border district between the two provinces, to come over to his side.^{[note 15]}

However, Razadarit soon learned of the alliance through one of his informants. After a period of clandestine preparations, he suddenly launched an attack, and occupied the border town. He also had Kan-Kaung, who was not only his half-brother but also one of his earliest supporters, executed. Pegu's path to the delta was now open. Aware of the formidable defenses at both Myaungmya and Bassein, the Pegu command ultimately decided to attack Bassein first as they believed it would be relatively easier.^[64][65]

Invasion

Battle of Bassein

A 19th-century painting of Bassein's shoreline

In late 1389, Razadarit invaded the delta from Dala.^[66][67] His forces had no trouble advancing until they got near Bassein, which was defended by 1,000 troops and 50+ war boats in the Bassein River.^[68] Some of the war boats were manned by foreign mercenaries with "guns".^{[note 16]} The king ordered repeated frontal assaults but the city's defenses repelled the charges each time, inflicting heavy casualties on the Hanthawaddy troops. Razadarit finally called off the attacks after one of his frontline commanders, Yaza Manu, was felled atop his war elephant by a gun shot.^[64][65]

The Pegu command was in a quandary. Razadarit acknowledged that he had severely misjudged the relative strength of Bassein, and that his degraded forces were in no shape to take on Myaungmya's even stronger defenses. Yet he was not ready to end the campaign. His senior staff, led by Byat Za and Dein Mani-Yut, argued that the only way they might have a chance at victory was if they could entice the enemy to come out of their fortified cities. The king agreed, and ordered his troops to withdraw into the main corridor between Bassein and Myaungmya, which were about 50 km (31 mi) apart, with the hope that the enemy forces would come after them.^[64]

Sweep of the delta

Hanthawaddy forces occupied up to Gu-Htut in 1390.

Two days after Myaungmya's fall, Razadarit marched to Bassein. This time, Lauk Shein decided to flee. He took "elephant loads of gold and silver", and left for Prome (Pyay), Ava's southernmost garrison.^[65] Razadarit dispatched Dein and Byat Za to intercept Lauk Shein, forcing him to change course to Sandoway (Thandwe), 300 km (190 mi) northwest of Bassein, in Arakan. Byat Za followed up, and laid siege to Sandoway until the town's ruler gave up Lauk Shein and his elephant loads of treasures. Lauk Shein was subsequently executed on Razadarit's order.^[74]

Meanwhile, Hanthawaddy forces fanned out to subdue the rest of the delta. By the end of March 1390, they had occupied up to Khebaung (north of modern Hinthada).^[75] It was a total rout. Of the old Laukpya installed rulers, only Laukpya's son Bya Kun and son-in-law Bya Kyin escaped to Ava.^[66][67] After a period of regrouping, Razadarit and his staff decided to take Ava's southernmost border towns for strategic reasons. The king sent a regiment and a naval squadron to occupy Gu-Htut (present-day Myan-Aung) and nearby Ahlwe.^[75][76]

Prelude

The occupation of Gu-Htut proved to be a provocation Ava could not overlook. Moreover, Ava and Maw had agreed to a truce, which included a marriage of state between Swa's second eldest son Prince Min Swe and King Tho Ngan Bwa of Maw's daughter Shin Mi-Nauk.^[75][77] Swa now ordered a renewed campaign to the south. As with the second invasion, Ava forces would invade by land and the river. One difference from the second invasion was that the army (12,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, 80 elephants) commanded by Crown Prince Tarabya would revert to invading from the Toungoo front (as opposed to from the Tharrawaddy front). Swa's riverine force (17,000 troops, 200 transport boats/ships, 80 war boats) was to attack via the Irrawaddy.^[78][79][80] As the Maw threat remained in the north, Ava did not include any northern regiments; all its forces were drawn from central to southern districts.^[8][9][10]

Razadarit was ready. With all three provinces under his control, he had raised over 13,000 troops, his largest ever. He had assigned Smin Than-Kye to lead the defense of Gu-Htut with 5,000 troops and 150 war boats while he himself would lead the defense of the Pegu capital region with his main army (8,000 troops and 40 elephants) from Fort Pankyaw.^[78][79][80]

Invasion

In their third invasion, Ava forces could not get past Gu-Htut in the west, and Pankyaw in the east.

The invasion began in late 1390, and it got bogged down from the outset. On the Irrawaddy front, Ava's war boats repeatedly attacked Gu-Htut but could not break through Hanthawaddy naval defenses. Getting impatient, Swa himself joined in on one of the attacks. It was a mistake. One Hanthawaddy squadron, commanded by Maha Thamun, managed to got close enough to Swa's own royal war boat to capture the gold ornaments from the side of the royal boat. After the close call, Swa called off the attacks.^[79][81]

The Pegu front was no better. Tarabya had advanced to Pankyaw but could not take the fort. With nothing to show for on both fronts, Swa was forced to reassess the situation. Retreat still was not an option but Swa recalibrated his aims to regaining his territories.^[79][81]

Peace agreement and withdrawal

It was during the stalemate that the initial peace offer came from Pegu. The offer was the result of the efforts of Maha Thamun, who recognized that Swa needed a face-saving way out. The commander initially sent a letter to Razadarit and the Pegu court urging them to sue for peace with Ava from a position of strength. He persuaded Razadarit to return Gu-Htut in exchange for Ava's recognition of Pegu. The king agreed, and appointed Maha Thamun to lead a four-person delegation.^[79][82] At the Ava camp, Maha Thamun presented King Swa the proposal letter from King Razadarit. It was a highly conciliatory letter but written on equal terms.^[82]

In the end, Swa accepted Razadarit's terms. Ava agreed to renounce its claims on all territories of Pegu, and recognize Pegu while Pegu agreed to return Gu-Htut and Ahlwe. Both sides also agreed to return each other's prisoners of war.^[83][84] When the news of the agreement reached the Pegu front, Razadarit and Tarabya exchanged gifts, and Tarabya withdrew. On the Irrawaddy front, after Hanthawaddy forces evacuated Gu-Htut, Swa deployed a garrison led by Zeya Gamani and Yaza Nawrahta.^[85][86]

Both sides remained on guard. Later in 1391,^{[note 19]} after withdrawing his troops to Prome, Swa sent 2,000 troops back to Tharrawaddy by the border, ostensibly to look for a white elephant. Only when Razadarit quickly returned to the border with a sizable force, did Swa recall his troops to deescalate the situation. The fragile peace held.^[85][86][87]