Bacterial recombination is a type of genetic recombination in bacteria characterized by DNA transfer from one organism called donor to another organism as recipient. This process occurs in three main ways:

  • Transformation, the uptake of exogenous DNA from the surrounding environment.
  • Transduction, the virus-mediated transfer of DNA between bacteria.
  • Conjugation, the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via cell-to-cell contact.[1][2][3][4]

The final result of conjugation, transduction, and/or transformation is the production of genetic recombinants, individuals that carry not only the genes they inherited from their parent cells but also the genes introduced to their genomes by conjugation, transduction, and/or transformation.[5][6][7]

Recombination in bacteria is ordinarily catalyzed by a RecA type of recombinase.[8] These recombinases promote repair of DNA damages by homologous recombination.[8]

The ability to undergo natural transformation is present in at least 67 bacterial species.[9] Natural transformation is common among pathogenic bacterial species.[10] In some cases, the DNA repair capability provided by recombination during transformation facilitates survival of the infecting bacterial pathogen.[10] Bacterial transformation is carried out by numerous interacting bacterial gene products.[9]

Evolution

Evolution in bacteria was previously viewed as a result of mutation or genetic drift.[11] Today, genetic exchange, or gene transfer is viewed as a major driving force in the evolution of prokaryotes.[11] This driving force has been widely studied in organisms like E. coli.[12] Bacteria reproduces asexually, where daughter cells are clones of the parent. This clonal nature leads to random mutations that occur during DNA replication that potentially helps bacteria evolve.[13] It was originally thought that only accumulated mutations helped bacteria evolve.[14] In contrast, bacteria also import genes in a process called homologous recombination, first discovered by the observation of mosaic genes at loci encoding antibiotic resistance.[11] The discovery of homologous recombination has made an impact on the understanding of bacterial evolution. The importance of evolution in bacterial recombination is its adaptivity. For example, bacterial recombination has been shown to promote the transfer of multi drug resistance genes via homologous recombination that goes beyond levels purely obtained by mutation.[15]

Mechanisms of bacterial recombination

Bacterial recombination undergoes various different processes. The processes include: transformation, transduction, conjugation and homologous recombination. Homologous recombination relies on cDNA transferring genetic material. Complementary DNA sequences transport genetic material in the identical homologous chromosomes. The paternal and maternal paired chromosomes will align in order for the DNA sequences to undergo the process of crossing over.[16] Transformation involves the uptake of exogenous DNA from the encircling environment. DNA fragments from a degraded bacterium will transfer into the surrounding, competent bacterium resulting in an exchange of DNA from the recipient.[17] Transduction is associated with viral-mediated vectors transferring DNA material from one bacterium to another within the genome.[18] Bacterial DNA is placed into the bacteriophage genome via bacterial transduction. In bacterial conjugation, DNA is transferred via cell-to-cell communication. Cell-to-cell communication may involve plasmids that allow for the transfer of DNA into another neighboring cell.[19] The neighboring cells absorb the F-plasmid (fertility plasmid: inherited material that is present in the chromosome). The recipient and donor cell come into contact during a F-plasmid transfer. The cells undergo horizontal gene transfer in which the genetic material is transferred.[20]

Mechanisms for double-stranded breaks

The RecBCD pathway in homologous recombination repairs the double-strand breaks in DNA that has degraded in bacteria. Base pairs attached to the DNA strands go through an exchange at a Holliday junction. In the second step of bacterial recombination, branch migration. involves the base pairs of the homologous DNA strands to continuously be interchanged at a Holliday junction. This results in the formation of two DNA duplexes.[21] The RecBCD pathway undergoes helicase activity by unzipping the DNA duplex and stops when the nucleotide sequence reaches 5′-GCTGGTGG-3′. This nucleotide sequence is known as the Chi site. RecBCD enzymes will change after the nucleotide sequence reaches the Chi site. The RecF pathway repairs the degradation of the DNA strands.[18]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Bajrović K, Jevrić-Čaušević A, Hadžiselimović R, eds. (2005). Uvod u genetičko inženjerstvo i biotehnologiju. Institut za genetičko inženjerstvo i biotehnologiju (INGEB) Sarajevo. ISBN 9958-9344-1-8.
  2. ↑ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
  3. ↑ King RC, Stransfield WD (1998). Dictionary of genetics. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-50944-1-7.
  4. ↑ Rieger RM, Green MM (1976). Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular. Heidelberg - New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-07668-9.
  5. ↑ "Recombination". TheFreeDictionary.
  6. ↑ Kimball JW (10 February 2017). "Genetic Recombination in Bacteria". Kimball's Biology Pages.
  7. ↑ Hiremath DS (16 April 2013). "Bacterial recombination".
  8. 1 2 Hofstatter PG, Tice AK, Kang S, Brown MW, Lahr DJ (October 2016). "Evolution of bacterial recombinase A (recA) in eukaryotes explained by addition of genomic data of key microbial lineages". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 283 (1840). doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.1453. PMC 5069510. PMID 27708147.
  9. 1 2 Johnsborg O, Eldholm V, Håvarstein LS (December 2007). "Natural genetic transformation: prevalence, mechanisms and function". Research in Microbiology. 158 (10): 767–78. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004. PMID 17997281.
  10. 1 2 Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (January 2018). "Sex in microbial pathogens". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 57: 8–25. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024. PMID 29111273.
  11. 1 2 3 Didelot, Xavier; Maiden, Martin C.J. (July 2010). "Impact of recombination on bacterial evolution". Trends in Microbiology. 18 (7): 315–322. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2010.04.002. ISSN 0966-842X. PMC 3985120. PMID 20452218.
  12. ↑ Touchon, Marie; Perrin, Amandine; Sousa, Jorge André Moura de; Vangchhia, Belinda; Burn, Samantha; O’Brien, Claire L.; Denamur, Erick; Gordon, David; Rocha, Eduardo PC (2020-06-12). "Phylogenetic background and habitat drive the genetic diversification of Escherichia coli". PLOS Genetics. 16 (6): e1008866. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008866. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 7314097. PMID 32530914.
  13. ↑ Shapiro, B. Jesse (2016-03-24). "How clonal are bacteria over time?". bioRxiv. 31: 116–123. doi:10.1101/036780. PMID 27057964. S2CID 196619031.
  14. ↑ Levin, Bruce R.; Bergstrom, Carl T. (2000-06-20). "Bacteria are different: Observations, interpretations, speculations, and opinions about the mechanisms of adaptive evolution in prokaryotes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (13): 6981–6985. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6981L. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.6981. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 34373. PMID 10860960.
  15. ↑ Perron, Gabriel G.; Lee, Alexander E. G.; Wang, Yun; Huang, Wei E.; Barraclough, Timothy G. (2012-04-22). "Bacterial recombination promotes the evolution of multi-drug-resistance in functionally diverse populations". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1733): 1477–1484. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1933. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3282345. PMID 22048956.
  16. ↑ Julin, Douglas A. (2017), Wells, Robert D.; Bond, Judith S.; Klinman, Judith; Masters, Bettie Sue Siler (eds.), "Recombination: Mechanisms, Pathways, and Applications", Molecular Life Sciences: An Encyclopedic Reference, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 1–28, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6436-5_366-1, ISBN 978-1-4614-6436-5, retrieved 2021-04-21
  17. ↑ "Genetic Recombination: Transformation". faculty.ccbcmd.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
  18. 1 2 "7.11A: Generalized Recombination and RecA". Biology LibreTexts. 2017-05-17. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
  19. ↑ Virolle, Chloé; Goldlust, Kelly; Djermoun, Sarah; Bigot, Sarah; Lesterlin, Christian (2020-10-22). "Plasmid Transfer by Conjugation in Gram-Negative Bacteria: From the Cellular to the Community Level". Genes. 11 (11): 1239. doi:10.3390/genes11111239. ISSN 2073-4425. PMC 7690428. PMID 33105635.
  20. ↑ "Bacterial Conjugation". Biology Dictionary. May 18, 2017. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
  21. ↑ Panyutin, I. G.; Hsieh, P. (1994-03-15). "The kinetics of spontaneous DNA branch migration". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 91 (6): 2021–2025. Bibcode:1994PNAS...91.2021P. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.6.2021. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 43301. PMID 8134343.
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