A building in Busan, housing several cosmetic surgery clinics.

Cosmetic surgery, also referred to as aesthetic surgery, is a surgical procedure which endeavours to improve the physical aspects of one's appearance to become more aesthetically pleasing.[1] It is closely linked to plastic surgery, but cosmetic surgery focuses more on the improvement of one's appearance, for example by reducing the signs of aging, instead of existing for health purposes. Motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty.[2] As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, it is inevitable that the Korean population feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty".[3]

South Korea has emerged as a major destination for medical tourism, and now 40 to 50% of all plastic surgeries in South Korea are performed on non-Korean patients, mostly from China and Japan.[4]

History

The modern Korean interest in appearance dates back to the 7th century, finding its roots in physiognomy (gwansang). The concept of connecting identity and appearance became stronger during the Japanese colonial period in Korea, as Japanese rulers believed that certain facial features displayed greater intelligence and nobility. After that, plastic surgery technique brought by American doctors during the Korean War and accepted the Western notion that changing one's face would change one's destiny.[5]

Due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which also had a lot of impact on South Korea, the country introduced large reforms which forcibly introduced a privatised free market in the country.[6] This resulted in a lot of labor laws disappearing, making it easier for companies to fire their employees. Due to the unemployment crisis, Korean citizens tried all they could to get an edge over competitors for a job position, including cosmetic surgery.[5] This still happens in the current day, as companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process.[7]

Statistics

Over the past few decades, plastic surgery has become more accepted in Korea. For example, the question "can a woman get plastic surgery for marriage" was agreed with by just 38% of respondents in 1994, but by 66% of respondents in 2015.[8] In the same survey, the amount of women that had plastic surgery climbed from 5% in 1994 to 31% in 2015. Women consistently score higher and are more supportive about the procedures than men. According to a Statista survey in 2020 which interviewed a total of 1,500 people, plastic surgery is prevalent among young women in South Korea. Nearly 25% of women aged 19–29 have undergone plastic surgery, while men have only undergone surgery 2% of the times. This number increases to 31% of women and 4% of men among 30–39-year-olds.[9] A case study by Allure Magazine noted that in recent years, the percentage rate of males who underwent plastic surgery increased and consisted as much as 30% of cases of those who underwent the procedure.[10] The expectation of undergoing cosmetic surgery is not restricted to urban areas and has spread to rural towns, in part due to the popularity of K-pop idols such as Wonder Girls and Girls' Generation among girls.[11]

South Korea is frequently called the "plastic surgery capital of the world".[12][13] Cosmetic surgery in South Korea is not stigmatised and is even a common graduation gift.[14] South Korea's cosmetic surgery is a market leader, with South Korea taking a 25% share in the global market.[15] One in five Korean women have undergone plastic surgery, compared to just one in twenty in the United States.[16] In 2018, a total of 464,452 patients visited South Korea for cosmetic surgery, a 16.7 percent increase from 2017.[17]

Market

In the Korean surgery market, there are two providers: Hospitals and Specialty Clinics and Spas and Cosmetic Surgery Centers. In 2021, the market was valued to 1.95 billion US dollars.[18]

Forms of cosmetic surgery

Blepharoplasty

A before and after comparison of a double eyelid surgery.

This form of cosmetic surgery is also known as the "double eyelid surgery". It is a surgery that reshapes the skin around the eye, resulting in a crease on the upper eyelid. The procedure is popular not just in South Korea but also other Asian countries like Taiwan and India.

The double eyelid surgery can be done in several ways, with the main difference being the form of incision. The full incision is often done to patients with excess fat and skin in the upper eyelid, a partial incision is done when there is only excess fat in the eyelid, while there is no incision used when there is no excess fat and skin. The surgery is not considered painful and it can take up to 4 weeks to fully recover.[19]

Facial contouring

Asian facial skeletal contouring surgeries, also known as V-Line surgeries, are often done to reduce the dimension or angularity of the cheekbones or the jaw in order to create a V shape. They are commonly found among young Korean pop stars and can give the face an elf- or childlike appeal.[11] K-pop groups like created a trend for the V-shaped face among young girls, as it is seen as an attractive feature.

A surgery can involve several related procedures: zygomatic reduction, V-Line surgery, mandibular contouring, and sagittal osteotomy of mandible. Zygomatic reduction involves fracturing the zygomatic arch, reshaping and re-orienting the bone so that it protrudes less to the side. During a V-Line surgery, incisions are made through the mouth. The chin is then fractured and reduced, and the jaw bone is shaved. Mandibular contouring is similar but does not involve the chin. Sagittal osteotomy reduces the width of the jaw bone.[20]

The pain following surgery ranges from mild to extreme. The jaws may be wired together for weeks, and it can take six months for the swelling to completely disappear, although it is most significant during the first 72 hours.[11][20] A maxillofacial surgeon and former professor at Columbia University said the V-Line surgery is complex and carries risks of permanent numbness and death.[11][21]

Rhinoplasty

Jessi is a Korean artist that has been very open about the cosmetic surgery she has received.

Examples of Korean celebrities that have undergone a "nose job" include Kim Hee-chul, Jessi, and Soyou.[22]

The surgery can be performed open and closed. The open procedure is the most popular as it gives the surgeon more visual context. It requires an incision in the columella, which often heals without any issues and leaves a minor scar that should be difficult to spot. Once the procedure is done, it takes a few weeks to heal completely.[23] In a closed surgery, all the incisions are made inside of the nose.[24]

In South Korea, rhinoplasty is the second least common surgery among ethnic Koreans.[25] The procedure is sometimes be performed in a health context as well, as restructuring the nose can also make it easier to breathe. [22]

Face whitening

Face-whitening injections have also started becoming more popular as a pale skin fits within the Korean beauty standards.[26] The active ingredients in these injections is glutathione, the procedure last 20 minutes. Some negative effects from the procedure are as following: low blood pressure, rash all over the body, and problems with the digestive system such as nausea or vomiting.[27]

Medical tourism

Medical tourism is the act of attracting foreigners to undergo surgeries. With the rise of popularity of K-drama and K-pop around the world, numerous people opted South Korea to undergo cosmetic surgeries. "South Korea's plastic surgery business is gaining popularity because of the country's quick, affordable, efficient, safe, and high-quality healthcare system."[28] In 2019, a total of 211,218 tourists visited South Korea for plastic surgery.[29]

Controversy

Ghost surgeries

A ghost surgery is a surgery in which the person who performs the operation, the "ghost doctor," is not the surgeon that was hired for and is credited with the operation. The ghost doctor substitutes the hired surgeon while the patient is unconscious from anesthesia.[30][31]

Ghost surgeries are "rampant" in the South Korean cosmetic surgery industry.[30][31][32] Ghost doctors are often unlicensed and unqualified to perform the operations they are hired for, with some plastic surgeries being performed by dentists, nurses, or salespeople; one former ghost doctor reported that most substitutes were dentists.[30] The Korean Society of Plastic Surgeons estimated that there were about 100,000 victims of ghost surgery in South Korea between 2008 and 2014. About five patients died during ghost surgeries between 2014 and 2022.[31]

Ghost surgery is illegal in South Korea, but as there is often no evidence a surgery was performed by a ghost doctor, it is rarely punished in court.[31] Public backlash to ghost surgery has led to the mandating of security cameras in operating rooms in South Korea.[33][34]

Beauty Standards

Korea is often criticised for having unrealistic beauty standards, often expecting women to be very thin to the point where their weight can become unhealthy. The "escape the corset" movement goes directly against the country's beauty standards and active promotion of beauty products and surgery.[35] The movement is intended to create body positivity and reduce the strict standards that women have to live up to in the country.

A study made by Charlotte N. Markeya and Patrick M. Markeya show there is a correlation between reality television viewing and interest in cosmetic surgery.[36]

Another study made by Young A. Kim, Duckhee Chae and Hyunlye Kim about "Factors Affecting Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Among Undergraduate Students" affirms that the rise of the beauty standards conveyed by television, internet, actors and stars of K-pop affect people's mental health by decreasing their self-esteem and increasing their anxiety. The socio-cultural message transmitted by peers reflects the high beauty standards are became the norms.[37]

A study at Miami University shows that the pressure to get the "perfect" appearance can stem from feelings of inferiority if someone sees themselves as less attractive.[3]

Let Me In was a controversial South Korean television show that is focused on doing complete make-overs, including plastic surgery.[38] Participants have to convince a panel that their appearance makes their life difficult, it even goes as far as making their parents apologise for appearance and lack of plastic surgery. Participants are presented to the audience after their make-over. The show was shut down in 2015 in a response to the amount of controversy and criticism, as the show was blamed for making plastic surgery more attractive to its viewers.[39]

Employment surgery

Employment surgery is a common occurrence in South Korea. Due to a lot of competition in the job market, appearance is considered an important factor when hiring, which pressures people into undergoing surgery to get an edge over their competitors.[40] People often come across appearance discrimination when trying to find a job in South Korea, further normalising plastic surgery to get the job you want.[41] People who are considered more appealing have statistically more chances to "have" the job than people who do not fit the beauty standards. This is well known by Koreans and can affect also the mental health of person who are looking for a job with the required qualification but not does not satisfy the beauty qualification.[42] According to a 2006 survey, 92.2% of women in South Korea expect to be discriminated based on appearance during a job interview.[43]

In 2021, a bill was proposed that take action against this culture, banning companies from asking for photos at a résumé. A survey in 2006 showed that 80% of public companies require personal information like photos.[43]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "cosmetic surgery". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  2. ↑ Holliday, R., & Elfving-Hwang, J. (2012). Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea. Body and Society, 18, 58– 81.
  3. 1 2 Lin, K. L., & Raval, V. V. (2020). Understanding Body Image and Appearance Management Behaviors among Adult Women in South Korea within a Sociocultural Context: A Review. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 9(2), 96–122.
  4. ↑ "A Look at South Korean Plastic Surgery". HMSR. 29 August 2022.
  5. 1 2 Davis, Chelsea. "Stanford scholar traces the roots of South Korea's cosmetic surgery surge". Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
  6. ↑ Park, Se-Il (1 September 1999). "The Labor Market Policy and Social Safety Net in Korea: After the 1997 Crisis". Brookings. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
  7. ↑ Maguire, Ciaran. "Stress dominates every aspect of life in South Korea". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
  8. ↑ "한국갤럽조사연구소" [A Study on Perceptions of Appearance and Plastic Surgery]. Gallup. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  9. ↑ "South Korea: plastic surgery experience by age and gender 2020". Statista. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2022.
  10. ↑ "Why More Men in South Korea Are Getting Plastic Surgery Than Ever Before By Devon Abelman". Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Stone, Zara (24 May 2013). "The K-Pop Plastic Surgery Obsession". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
  12. ↑ "Forever young, beautiful and scandal-free: The rise of South Korea's virtual influencers". CNN. 31 July 2022. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  13. ↑ Jacobs, Harrison (28 June 2018). "People have the wrong idea about the 3 most popular procedures in South Korea, the plastic surgery capital of the world". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  14. ↑ Marx, Patricia (16 March 2015). "The World Capital of Plastic Surgery". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  15. ↑ "Plastic Surgery – VisitKorea". VisitKorea. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  16. ↑ "A cut above". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
  17. ↑ "Foreign patients receiving plastic surgery hit record high in 2018". KBR (in Korean). 16 October 2019. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  18. ↑ "South Korea Plastic Surgery Market Report and Forecast 2022–2027". Expert Market Research. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  19. ↑ "Asian Double Eyelid". Stanford Medicine. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  20. 1 2 "Asian Facial Skeletal Contouring". Stanford Medicine. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2022.
  21. ↑ "Oral Surgeon New York City | David Koslovsky, DDS, FACS, FACD". www.new-york-oral-surgery.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
  22. 1 2 "9 K-Pop Idols Who Confessed To Having A Nose Job". Koreaboo. 27 July 2020. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  23. ↑ "Rhinoplasty Procedure Steps". American Society of Plastic Surgeons. Archived from the original on 22 May 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  24. ↑ "Rhinoplasty". Stanford Medical. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2022.
  25. ↑ "Most plastic surgery types". joongang. 15 January 2018. Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. Translation from Korean: "It was found that the most frequent plastic surgery site for Koreans is 'eyes→wrinkles→nose→chest'." ... "Patients in Western countries such as the United States and Europe and Middle Eastern countries also increased significantly compared to the previous year. According to Banobagi Medical Group, 'rhinoplasty' was the most common, followed by 'eye surgery', 'fat transplant', 'filler botox', and 'contouring'. Western and Middle Eastern patients are said to be too smart and often go to hospitals to trim their large noses."
  26. ↑ "How Skin Whitening Injections Available in Korea Play Into Harmful Beauty Standards". Koreaboo. 23 September 2022. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
  27. ↑ Beauty, Jivaka (19 November 2019). "Skin whitening injections in Korea – What are their effects?". Jivaka Beauty. Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  28. ↑ "South Korea Plastic Surgery Market Report and Forecast 2022–2027". www.expertmarketresearch.com. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  29. ↑ Stevenson, Alexandra (24 December 2014). "Plastic Surgery Tourism Brings Chinese to South Korea". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  30. 1 2 3 Seo, Yoonjung; Hollingsworth, Julia (11 April 2021). "In South Korea, patients pay for a star plastic surgeon – and get operated by a ghost doctor". CNN. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Yoon, John (13 May 2022). "South Korea Turns to Surveillance as 'Ghost Surgeries' Shake Faith in Hospitals". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  32. ↑ Hong, Seung Eun; Hong, Min Ki; Park, Bo Young; Woo, Kyong Jae; Kang, So Ra (2018). "Is the "ghost surgery" the subject of legal punishment in Korea?". Annals of Surgical Treatment and Research. 94 (4): 167–173. doi:10.4174/astr.2018.94.4.167. ISSN 2288-6575. PMC 5880973. PMID 29629350.
  33. ↑ Muzaffar, Maroosha (1 September 2021). "How South Korea lost faith in its surgeons". Independent. Archived from the original on 4 March 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  34. ↑ Cha, Sangmi (31 August 2021). "South Korean lawmakers mandate cameras in operating rooms after surgery deaths". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 March 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  35. ↑ Haas, Benjamin (26 October 2018). "'Escape the corset': South Korean women rebel against strict beauty standards". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  36. ↑ Markey, Charlotte N.; Markey, Patrick M. (1 March 2010). "A correlational and experimental examination of reality television viewing and interest in cosmetic surgery". Body Image. 7 (2): 165–171. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.10.006. ISSN 1740-1445. PMID 20089464. S2CID 14226954.
  37. ↑ Kim, Young A.; Chae, Duckhee; Kim, Hyunlye (2017). "Factors Affecting Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Among Undergraduate Students". The Journal of the Korea Contents Association. 17 (1): 455–464. doi:10.5392/JKCA.2017.17.01.455. ISSN 1598-4877. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  38. ↑ "Zuid-Korea: het epicentrum van plastische chirurgie" [South Korea: The epicenter of plastic surgery]. npo3.nl. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  39. ↑ Chung, Hyun-chae (18 September 2015). "'Let Me In' to be shut down". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  40. ↑ Stiles, Matt (13 June 2017). "In South Korea's hypercompetitive job market, it helps to be attractive". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  41. ↑ "Why is Plastic Surgery So Popular in South Korea?". KOREA EXPOSÉ. 9 January 2018. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  42. ↑ Stiles, Matt (13 June 2017). "In South Korea's hypercompetitive job market, it helps to be attractive". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  43. 1 2 Lee, Tae-hoon (8 June 2010). "Bill seeks to ban photo on resume". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.