| Espiritu Santo | |
|---|---|
| Santo | |
| Geographic distribution | Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Glottolog | espi1234 |
The Espiritu Santo languages (alternatively Santo languages) are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.[1]
Languages
Two lists of Espiritu Santo languages from Tryon (2010) and François (2015) are provided below.
Tryon (2010)
Tryon (2010) recognizes 33 living languages and 2 extinct languages. They are:[1]
| Language | Speakers | Area | Villages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Valpei (Tavanlav) | 300 | North-West Santo | Wunpuko, Valpei, Petani, Matalip, Pwar, Molpoe, Hakua, Maroa, Pwat, Pwatmwel (Onmwertev), Mwalovuko, Wunapak |
| Nokuku (Vevatot) | 250 | North-West Santo | Olpoe, Nokuku, Lajmoli, Vunon, Penaoru, Petawota |
| 'Oa | 300 | North-West Santo | Tasmate, Sulesal, Vasalea |
| Vunapu | 250? | North-West Santo | Vunapu, Pesena |
| Piamatsina | 250? | North-West Santo | Piamatsina, Piamaeto, Peavot |
| Tolomako (Big Bay) | 900 | North-West Santo | Jureviu, Tuturu, Tavunamalo, Peavot, Vasi, Pialulup, Matantas |
| Kula | 350 | West Santo | Wusi, Kerepua, Elia 1 |
| Bura | 300 | West Santo | Linduri, Putonro, Saktui, Maram, Patiare, Mapten, Nukupospos |
| Kene | 300 | West Santo | Vuimele, Navura, Papaisale, Arumalate, Latavoa, Pilipili, Lepurpuri, Potlavaisevu |
| Akei | 4000 | West Santo | Toramaori, Lalaolo, Tovotovo, Kerevinumbu, Tasiriki, Ukoro, Malovira, Tasmalum |
| Daruru | 100? | West Santo | Pelmol |
| Retlatur | 100 | South Santo | Tanovusivusi |
| Ale | 500 | South Santo | Fimele, Wailapa |
| Aje | 10 | South Santo | Patunmevu, Nambaka, Wunamoli |
| Ande | 500 | South Santo | Tanmet, Lotunai, Ipayato, Tasmalum, Morouas |
| Araki | 10 | South Santo | Araki Island |
| Movono | 370 | South Santo | Tangoa Island |
| Farsav | 400 | South Santo | Nambel, Tanovoli, Narango, Funafosi, Nambauk |
| Tiale / Merei | 400 | Central Santo | Tavuimoli, Nazaraka, Mataipevu, Patuitano, Morokari, Angoru, Tombet, Navele, Vusvogo |
| Kiai | 450 | Central Santo | Wailapa, Fortsenale, Namoru |
| Ko / Mores (Farmores) | 200? | Central Santo | Tanmet, Lemben, Tsarailan, Namafun, Patmarifu, Sarete, Mavunlif |
| Moiso | 100 | Central Santo | Moriuli |
| Toksiki / Soisoru | 200 | Central Santo | Morkriv, Pilnuri, Bengie |
| Tamambo | 4000 | East Santo | Malo |
| Aore | extinct | East Santo | Aore |
| Biliru | 3 | East Santo | Tambotalo, Belnatsa, Beleru, Belembut, Lambue |
| Farafi | 300? | East Santo | Butmas, Tur, Maniok, Shark Bay, Naturuk |
| Ngen | 250 | East Santo | Vanafo (Tanafo), Mon Exil, Palon, Shark Bay |
| Ati (Meris / Miris) | 85 | East Santo | Fumbak, Naturuk, Nambauk |
| Se | 20 | East Santo | Vanafo, Butmas |
| Atin (Farnanatin) | 120 | East Santo | Nambauk (Patunfarambu), Fumatal |
| Farnanto | 100 | East Santo | Nambauk, Tanmet, Tafua |
| Mavea (Lonavu) | 500 | East Santo | Mavea, Aissi, Tutuba |
| Nethalp | extinct | East Santo | Lorediakarkar |
| Nekep | 4000 | East Santo | Hog Harbour, Port Olry, Kole 1 |
François (2015)
The following list of 38 Espiritu Santo languages is from Alexandre François (2015:18-21).
Lynch (2019)
John Lynch (2019)[2] proposes the following classification scheme for the Espiritu Santo languages, with the development of bilabial consonants to linguolabials as the primary marker of the "Nuclear Santo" group:
- Espiritu Santo
- West Santo Group
- Nuclear Santo Group
- South Santo Group
- East Santo Group
- Shark Bay: Shark Bay I, Shark Bay II, Lorediakarkar
- Southeast Santo: Butmas-Tur, Polonombauk, Tambotalo
- Outlier: Sakao
References
- 1 2 Tryon, Darrell. 2010. The languages of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. In John Bowden and Nikolaus P. Himmelmann and Malcolm Ross (eds.), A journey through Austronesian and Papuan linguistic and cultural space: papers in honour of Andrew K. Pawley, 283-290. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
- ↑ Lynch, John (December 2019). "The Bilabial-to-Linguolabial Shift in Southern Oceanic: A Subgrouping Diagnostic?". Oceanic Linguistics. 58 (2): 292–323. doi:10.1353/ol.2019.0010. Retrieved January 16, 2022.
- François, Alexandre; Franjieh, Michael; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Schnell, Stefan (2015), "The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu" (PDF), in François, Alexandre; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Franjieh, Michael; Schnell, Stefan (eds.), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, pp. 1–21, ISBN 9781922185235.
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