Electronic literature
FeaturesLiterary works that require the capabilities of computers and networks
Related genres
Hypertext fiction, interactive fiction, digital poetry, generative literature, cell phone novels, instapoetry, cybertext, netprov, creepypasta, fan fiction
Photo of an old disk from the 1990s.
Many early hypertext fictions were sold on diskette, like Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl (1993).

Electronic literature or digital literature is a genre of literature encompassing works created exclusively on and for digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones. As electronic literature uses games, images, sound, and links, these writings cannot be easily printed, or cannot be printed at all, because elements crucial to the text are unable to be carried over onto a printed version.

Definitions

A work of electronic literature can be defined as "a construction whose literary aesthetics emerge from computation", "work that could only exist in the space for which it was developed/written/coded—the digital space".[1] N. Katherine Hayles defines electronic literature as "'digital born' (..) and (usually) meant to be read on a computer",[2] clarifying that this does not include e-books and digitised print literature. A definition offered by the Electronic Literature Organization (ELO) states electronic literature "refers to works with an important literary aspect that takes advantage of the capabilities and contexts provided by the stand-alone or networked computer".[3] This can include hypertext fiction, animated poetry (often called kinetic poetry) and other forms of digital poetry, literary chatbots, computer-generated narratives or poetry, art installations with significant literary aspects, interactive fiction and literary uses of social media.

The definition of electronic literature is controversial within the field, with strict definitions being criticised for excluding valuable works, and looser definitions being so murky as to be useless.[4] Scott Rettberg argues that an advantage of a wide definition is its flexibility, which allows it to include new genres as new platforms and modes of literature emerge.[4] Handler characterizes these works as nonlinear and non chronological where the user experiences and co-creates the story, and where contradictory events and different outcomes are possible.[5]

History

Precursors

Scholars have discussed a range of pre-digital precursors to electronic literature, from the ancient Chinese book the I Ching,[6] to John Clark's mechanical Latin Verse Machine (1830-1843)[7] to the Dadaist movement's cut-up technique.[4] Print novels that were designed to be read non-linearly, such as Julio Cortázar's Hopscotch and Nabokov's Pale Fire (1962), are cited as "print antecedents" of electronic literature.[8]

1950s

The 1952 love letter generator that the British computer scientist Christopher Strachey wrote for the Manchester Mark 1 computer is probably the first example of literature that requires a computer to be generated or read.[9][10][11] The work generates short love letters, and is an example of combinatory poetry, also called generative poetry.[12] The original code has been lost, but digital poet Nick Montfort has reimplemented it based on remaining documentation of its output, and this version can be viewed in a web browser.[13]

In 1959 the German computer scientist Theo Lutz's wrote [[Stochastic Texts]], which "for many years was considered the first digital literary text."[14] Lutz wrote a program on a Z22 computer that "produced random short sentences based on a corpus of chapter titles and subjects from Franz Kafka's The Castle".[4] Lutz's work has been discussed both as a very early work of electronic literature[15][16][17] and as an important precursor to current AI-generated literature.[18] Hannes Bajohr writes that Stochastic Texts is an example of the "sequential paradigm" in generative literature, in opposition to newer examples of a "connectionist paradigm": "Instead of hoping to recreate intuition, genius, or expression, the logic of the machine itself – that is, the logic of deterministically executed rule steps – becomes aesthetically normative in 'Stochastische Texte.'"[19]

1960s

The 1960s were a time of literary experimentation, and there were strong connections between the art and technology scenes and concrete poetry.[20]

Nanni Balestrini's poem Tape Mark I was composed in 1961 on an IBM 7070, and output from the poetry generator was published in a special issue of a journal edited by Umberto Eco and Bruno Munari, thus standing as the first Italian work of electronic literature.[21] Auto-Beatnik (1961) was a program by R. M. Worthy that generated poems on an LGP-30 computer to mimic the style of Beat poetry.[4]

Mabel Addis and William McKay's text-based narrative game The Sumerian Game (1964-66) was probably the first narrative computer game, although it was not widely distributed.[22] Joseph Weizenbaum programmed the chatbot ELIZA in 1966, establishing a new genre of conversational literary artefacts or bots.[23]

1970s

Writers and artists continued to experiment with combining art, technology and literature. An example is the installation Blikk (1970) by a Norwegian trio: artist Irma Salo Jæger, composer Sigurd Berge and poet Jan Erik Vold.[24] Vold's readings of his poems were mixed as sound montages by Berge and combined with Jægers kinetic sculptures in an exhibition at the Henie Onstad Art Center. The work was recreated in 2022 by Jøran Rudi and is now part of the permanent collection of the Norwegian National Museum.[25]

Another important development in the 1970s was the popular emergence of text adventure games, now more commonly known as interactive fiction. In 1975–76, Will Crowther programmed a text game named Colossal Cave Adventure (also known as Adventure or ADVENT). It possessed a story that had the reader make choices on which way to go. These choices could lead the reader to the end, or to his or her untimely death. Adventure is often called the first work of interactive fiction,[4] although others have argued that the simulated microworld SHRDLU[26][27] or Mabel Addis's The Sumerian Game[22] were earlier and should be considered interactive fiction. Historians agree that Colossal Cave Adventure made a "significant cultural impact" in the 1970s.[28] It has been called a "classic"[29] "so foundational it started a genre",[30] "the Gilgamesh of video games",[31] and is credited with having "informed and inspired generations of players."[31] Colossal Cave Adventure was played on mainframe computers, and spread rapidly through the ARPANET. Colossal Cave inspired many other games, the text adventure game, Zork (1977), being one of the best known.[32]

1980s

With the advent of personal computers, interactive fiction became a commercially successful genre, driven by companies like Infocom. Companies hired authors and programmers to write text adventure games, as Veronika Megler, who wrote The Hobbit in 1982, describes in an interview with The Guardian.[33]

For hypertext fiction and digital poetry, the eighties were a time of experimentation in separate pockets. American hypertext author Stuart Moulthrop described discovering Judy Malloy's work at this time, "Yeah, alright, oh darn that's good. Oh, we're not that good. (..) I can remember coming away from that moment thinking that, you know, there might be a real hope for what we were trying to do because other people were doing it".[34]

Canadian poet Bp Nichol published "First Screening: Computer Poems", written in BASIC, in 1984.[35] Judy Malloy published Uncle Roger on The WELL in 1986/87.[34] Michael Joyce's Afternoon, a story was demonstrated at a conference, and was then published by Eastgate Systems.[34]

Digital artists also created works with strong literary components that have had an influence on the field of electronic literature. An example is Jeremy Shaw's The Legible City (1989).[36]

1990s

The "Storyspace school" characterised the early 1990s,[34] consisting of works created using Storyspace, software developed by Jay David Bolter and Michael Joyce in the 1980s.[37] They sold the software in 1990 to Eastgate Systems, a small software company that has maintained and updated the code in Storyspace up to the present.[38] Storyspace and similar programs use hypertext to create links within text. Literature using hypertext is frequently referred to as hypertext fiction. Originally, these stories were often disseminated on discs and later on CD-ROM.[39] Hypertext fiction is still being created today using not only Storyspace, but other programs such as Twine.[40][34]

In the 1993 New York Times Book Review, Hyperfiction: Novels for the Computer, Robert Coover, noted the new possibilities for exploring these various storyworlds. "[I]t is a strange place, hyperspace, much more like inner space than outer, a space not of coordinates but of the volumeless imagination.".[41]

Key works from this period include Stuart Moulthrop's Victory Garden, Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl (1995) and Deena Larsen's work.[42]

Towards the middle of the decade, authors began writing on the web. Stuart Moulthrop's Hegirascope was published in 1995. Early web-based hypertext fictions include Olia Lialina's My Boyfriend Came Back from the War, Adrienne Eisen's Six Sex Scenes and Robert Arellano's Sunshine '69, all published in 1996.[43][4] Scott Rettberg, William Gillespie, Dirk Stratton, and Frank Marquadt's sprawling hypertext novel The Unknown won the trAce/Alt-X Hypertext Competition in 1998.[44] It was also featured in the Electronic Literature Collection Vol. 2,[45] and has been analysed by a number of scholars.[46][47][48][49]

This period is also often termed the first generation hypertext era, as N. Katherine Hayles notes that these works used lexia or separate screens in a similar manner to books and pages.[50]

The Electronic Literature Organization was founded in 1999 by Scott Rettberg, Robert Coover and Jeff Ballowe, and is still active today, with annual conferences, online discussions and publications.[51][52]

2000s

Network visualisation showing titles of works clustered in four groups, each corresponding to a genre: Interactive fiction, web hypertexts, hypertext fictions (mostly on disk) and generative works.
A network visualisation showing works of electronic literature cited by two or more PhD dissertations on electronic literature defended between 2002 and 2008. Four clear genres emerge: interactive fiction, generative works, hypertext fictions and more experimental web hypertexts and poetry.[53]
PhD dissertations on electronic literature completed between 2009 and 2013 show a shift in genres. Classic hypertext fiction is still present (the red circle), as are the experimental webtexts, interactive fiction and generative works. Two new distinct genres have emerged as important to this generation of dissertation writers: kinetic poetry and digital poetry installation art.[53]

In Japan, cell phone novels became popular from the early 2000s.[54] Similar genres emerged in other countries where text messaging was well-established, including India[55] and Europe.[56] The first work of Indian electronic literature is probably the 2004 SMS novel Cloak Room,[57] whose author used the pseudonym RoGue. Cloak Room invited readers to engage with the story by answering texts or leaving comments on the blog that was used in tandem with the text messages.[58]

In North America the web was becoming the main platform for electronic literature. Caitlin Fisher's These Waves of Girls (2001) was a hypermedia novella telling stories of girlhood, using images and sounds as well as links and text.[59] Talan Memmott's Lexia to Perplexia (2000) offered complex visual and textual layers that sometimes confuse and occlude themselves,[60] and is described by Lisa Swanstrom as a "beautifully intricate piece of electronic literature".[61]

Kate Pullinger's Inanimate Alice is an example of a work that began as a web novel and then saw versions across several media, including a screenplay and a VR experience.[62] Works like The Impermanence Agent, by Noah Wardrip-Fruin and collaborators, explored the web's ability to customise a story for the reader.[63]

An analysis of 44 PhD dissertations about electronic literature published between 2002 and 2013[34] found a clear shift in the genres referenced by the authors of the dissertations during this period. Between 2002 and 2008, the referenced works clustered in four distinct genre groups: interactive fiction, generative literature, classic hypertext fiction (mostly published on disk or in print) and web hypertexts, including more experimental works and some poetry.[34]

Blog fiction and fan fiction are born-digital literary genres that also became popular in this period.[64][65][66] Blog fictions have been a particularly popular genre of electronic literature in Africa.[67][68][69] The literary orality of blogs has also been analysed as a feature of African American blogs.[70]

2010s

The spread of smartphones and tablets led to literary works that explored the touchscreen, such as Samantha Gorman and Danny Cannizarro's Pry (2014)[71] or Kate Pullinger's Breathe: A Ghost Story.[9]

Netprov, improvisational and collaborative networked writing was another genre that developed during the 2000s and 2010s, with projects like #1WkNoTech.[72][73] Instapoetry, a visual style of poetry native to Instagram became a popular success.[74]

The web-based hypertext authoring tool Twine became increasingly popular this decade. This "Twine revolution"[75] led to a resurgence of interactive fiction and hypertext,[76] which now became "a mainstream form of literary game production and interaction".[77] Notable works written in Twine that are frequently discussed as electronic literature include Anna Anthropy's Queers in Love at the End of the World (2013)[78][79] and Dan Hett's autobiographical C ya laterrrr about losing his brother in the Manchester Arena bombing (2017).[80]

As machine learning made rapid advances with natural language processing and deep learning, authors began to experiment and write with the AI.[81][82] David Jhave Johnston's ReRites is an example of this new kind of generative literature and is a poetic work written as a human-AI collaboration.[83]

Dissertations published between 2009 and 2013 still cite many works in the genres of hypertext fiction, interactive fiction, experimental webtexts and generative texts, but digital poetry also emerged as a significant genre, with dissertation authors writing about two distinct clusters of digital poetry: kinetic poetry and poetic installations in art galleries. Many of these works were from the 1980s to the early 2000s, so this may indicate an uptake in scholarly interest rather than a large change in what kinds of creative works were actually published in the 2010s.[34]

Scholarship

Histories and timelines

Various histories of electronic literature and its subgenera have been written. Scott Rettberg's Electronic Literature[4] provides a broad overview, while more specialised books discuss the history of specific genres or periods, like Chris Funkhouser's Prehistoric Digital Poetry[15] and Astrid Ensslin's Pre-web Digital Publishing and the Lore of Electronic Literature.[84]

Leonardo Flores proposes a generational understanding of electronic literature, where the first generation is pre-web, the second uses the web, and the third generation uses social media, web APIs and mobile devices.[85] However, not all works fit within this structure, as Spencer Jordan notes, writing that "A work such as The Unknown, for example, sits uneasily between second and third generation definitions."[86]

Reader interaction

Digital literature tends to require a user to traverse through the literature through the digital setting, making the use of the medium part of the literary exchange. Espen J. Aarseth wrote in his book Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature that "it is possible to explore, get lost, and discover secret paths in these texts, not metaphorically, but through the topological structures of the textual machinery".[6] Espen Aarseth defines "ergodic literature" as literature where "nontrivial effort is required to allow the reader to traverse the text".[6] George Landow explains that following hypertext links merges the traditional expectations of reader and writer roles as the reader constructs the text by following links.[87]

Literary criticism

Contradictions

Astrid Ensslin and Alice Bell note that electronic literature works can embody central contradictions in ways that differ from print literature. They cite examples such as Afternoon (a car accident that may not or may occur), Victory Garden (a character both dies and lives), and Patchwork Girl (a character is real or imagined).[88] Bell further elaborates on these contradictions in her analysis in The Possible Worlds of Hypertext Fiction.[89]

Context

Plot lines, emotional intensity, character traits and attributions vary depending on a reader's chosen path.[89][90] J Yellowlees Douglas shows an early example of this in Michael Joyce's WOE where romances would occur between different characters, depending on a reader's path.[90]

Repetition

Coming across a node in different contexts can convey impressions of larger databases as information seems to differ depending on the context that the user is coming from, as J Yellowlees Douglas explains about The Election of 1912, by Mark Bernstein and Erin Sweeney.[91]

Preservation and archiving

Electronic literature, according to Hayles, becomes unplayable after a decade or less due to the "fluid nature of media". Therefore, electronic literature risks losing the opportunity to build the "traditions associated with print literature".[92]

Several organizations are dedicated to preserving works of electronic literature. The UK-based Digital Preservation Coalition aims to preserve digital resources in general, while the Electronic Literature Organization's PAD (Preservation / Archiving / Dissemination) initiative gave recommendations on how to think ahead when writing and publishing electronic literature, as well as how to migrate works running on defunct platforms to current technologies.[93][94] The British Library archives winners of the New Media Writing Prize in the UK Web Archive.[95][96] The NEXT, run by Dene Grigar for the Electronic Literature Organization, hosts source files and documentation of many works of electronic literature and digital writing.[97]

The Electronic Literature Collection is a series of anthologies of electronic literature published by the Electronic Literature Organization, both on CD/DVD and online, and this is another strategy in working to make sure that electronic literature is available for future generations.[98][99]

The Maryland Institute for Technologies in the Humanities and the Electronic Literature Lab[100] at Washington State University Vancouver also work towards the documentation and preservation of electronic literature and hypermedia. In Canada, the Laboratory NT2 hosts research and a database on electronic literature and digital art.

Databases and directories

  • The Electronic Literature Knowledge Base (ELMCIP)[101] is a research resource for electronic literature, with 3,851 entries as of September 2, 2022.
  • The Electronic Literature Organization's The NEXT Museum hosts 38 collections of digital art and writing as of September 2, 2022.[97]
  • The Electronic Literature Directory[102]
  • NT2: Le laboratoire de recherche sur les oeuvres hypermédiatiques[103]
  • African Electronic Literature Alliance & African Diasporic Electronic Literature (AELA & ADELI)[104]

Major awards

Annual awards for electronic literature include the Electronic Literature Organization awards[105] and the New Media Writing Prize.[106]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Heckman, Davin; O'Sullivan, James (2018). "Electronic Literature: Contexts and Poetics". Literary Studies in the Digital Age: An Evolving Anthology. Archived from the original on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  2. ↑ Hayles, N. Katherine (2008). Electronic Literature: New Horizons for the Literary. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 3.
  3. ↑ "About the ELO". Electronic Literature Organization. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rettberg, Scott (2019). Electronic literature. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-1677-3. OCLC 1028213515.
  5. ↑ Miller, Carolyn Handler (2014). Digital storytelling: a creator's guide to interactive entertainment (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Focal Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-415-83694-4.
  6. 1 2 3 Aarseth, Espen J. (1997). Cybertext: perspectives on ergodic literature. Baltimore, MD; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8018-5578-8.
  7. ↑ Sharples, Mike (2023-01-01). "John Clark's Latin Verse Machine: 19th Century Computational Creativity". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 45 (1): 31–42. arXiv:2301.05570. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2023.3241258. ISSN 1058-6180. S2CID 255825542. Archived from the original on 2023-07-30. Retrieved 2023-07-31.
  8. ↑ Pressman, Jessica (2014). Digital modernism: making it new in new media. Modernist literature & culture. New York: Oxford university press. ISBN 978-0-19-993710-3.
  9. 1 2 Rettberg, Jill Walker (2021-10-03). "Speculative Interfaces: How Electronic Literature Uses the Interface to Make Us Think about Technology". Electronic Book Review. doi:10.7273/1xsg-nv26.
  10. ↑ Gaboury, Jacob (2013-12-01). "Darling sweetheart: Queer objects in early computer art". Metaverse Creativity. 3 (1–2): 23–27. doi:10.1386/mvcr.3.1-2.23_1.
  11. ↑ Wardrip-Fruin, Noah (2011-06-16). "14. Digital Media Archaeology: Interpreting Computational Processes". Media Archaeology. University of California Press. pp. 302–322. doi:10.1525/9780520948518-016. ISBN 978-0-520-94851-8. S2CID 226776992. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  12. ↑ Todorovic, Vladimir; Grba, Dejan (2019-05-01). "Wandering machines: narrativity in generative art". Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts. 11 (2): 50–58. doi:10.7559/citarj.v11i2.664. hdl:10356/138446. ISSN 2183-0088. S2CID 243018095. Archived from the original on 2023-07-31. Retrieved 2023-07-31.
  13. ↑ Strachey, Christopher (2014). Montfort, Nick (ed.). "Love Letters". nickm.com (Reimplementation of 1953 love letter generator.). Archived from the original on 2023-06-10. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  14. ↑ di Rosario, Giovanna; Meza, Nohelia; Grimaldi, Kerri (2021). "The Origins of Electronic Literature: An Overview". In Grigar, Dene; O'Sullivan, James (eds.). Electronic literature as digital humanities: contexts, forms, & practices. New York; London; Oxford; New Delhi; Sydney: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-5013-6349-8. For many years, the electronic literature community has considered "Stochastic Texts" (1959) by Theo Lutz as the first digital literary text.4 German scholar, philosopher, and poet Max Bense suggested that Lutz use a random generator to accidentally determine texts. Bense looked to establish a scientific and objective branch of aesthetics, by means of applying mathematical and information theoretical premises to the study of aesthetic texts. Lutz made a database of sixteen subjects and sixteen titles from Franz Kafka's novel The Castle (1926). Lutz's program randomly generated a sequence of numbers, pulled up each of the subjects/titles, and connected them using logical constants (gender, conjunction, etc.) in order to create syntax. The language of the work contained permutation—the same set of words were used over and over again, each time that the program was running. However, it was not the permutation of Kafka's complete work; it was a fragmented permutation of the words Lutz chose from The Castle.
    The results of his project were published in 1959 as an essay in Augenblick 4 (3–9), a journal of aesthetics edited by Max Bense. The publication in a journal of aesthetics gave credit to consider "Stochastic texts" (Stochastische Texte) as the very first piece of electronic literature.
  15. 1 2 Funkhouser, Chris (2007). Prehistoric digital poetry : an archaeology of forms, 1959-1995. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-8087-8. OCLC 183291342.
  16. ↑ Beals, Kurt (2018). ""Do the New Poets Think? It's Possible": Computer Poetry and Cyborg Subjectivity". Configurations. 26 (2): 149–177. doi:10.1353/con.2018.0010. ISSN 1080-6520. S2CID 150182225.
  17. ↑ Funkhouser, Christopher T. (March 2017). "IBM Poetry: Exploring Restriction in Computer Poems". Humanities. 6 (1): 7. doi:10.3390/h6010007. ISSN 2076-0787.
  18. ↑ Husárová, Zuzana; Piorecký, Karel (2022). "Reception of literature generated by artificial neural networks". World Literature Studies (in Slovak). 14 (1): 44–60. doi:10.31577/wls.2022.14.1.4. S2CID 248305840.
  19. ↑ Bajohr, Hannes (March 2022). "Algorithmic Empathy: Toward a Critique of Aesthetic AI". Configurations. 30 (2): 210. doi:10.1353/con.2022.0011. ISSN 1080-6520. S2CID 248578007.
  20. ↑ D'Ambrosio, Matteo (2018-08-10). "The Early Computer Poetry and Concrete Poetry". Matlit Revista do Programa de Doutoramento em Materialidades da Literatura. 6 (1): 51–72. doi:10.14195/2182-8830_6-1_4. ISSN 2182-8830. S2CID 194914879. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  21. ↑ Patti, Emanuela (2021-12-17). "Umberto Eco's Opera Aperta and the Birth of Italian Electronic Literature". Modern Languages Open. 1. doi:10.3828/mlo.v0i0.381. ISSN 2052-5397. S2CID 245288627. Archived from the original on 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  22. 1 2 Skains, R. Lyle (2023). Neverending Stories: The Popular Emergence of Digital Fiction. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 27–28.
  23. ↑ "ELIZA (Encyclopedia entry)". ELMCIP: Electronic Literature Knowledge Base. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  24. ↑ Finborud, Lars Mørch. "Institusjonell kjærlighet" [A Marriage of Convenience]. Lyd og ulydighet: Ny Musikk siden 1938. Translated by Mackie, Saân. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  25. ↑ Rudi, Jøran (January 2023). "Balancing Conflicting Types of Authenticity in the Reconstruction of Sound and Music in the Installation Work Blikk (1970)". Curator: The Museum Journal. 66 (1): 85–106. doi:10.1111/cura.12539. ISSN 0011-3069. S2CID 256648015. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  26. ↑ Donahue, Evan (2023-03-17). "All the Microworld's a Stage: Realism in Interactive Fiction and Artificial Intelligence". American Literature. 95 (2): 229–254. doi:10.1215/00029831-10575049. ISSN 0002-9831. S2CID 257617995.
  27. ↑ Montfort, Nick (2005). Twisty little passages: an approach to interactive fiction. Cambridge, MA; London: MIT Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-262-13436-1.
  28. ↑ Jerz, Dennis G. (2007). "Somewhere Nearby is Colossal Cave: Examining Will Crowther's Original "Adventure" in Code and in Kentucky". Digital Humanities Quarterly. 1 (2). ProQuest 2555208725.
  29. ↑ Peel, Jeremy (2023-01-18). "Colossal Cave review". PC Gamer. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  30. ↑ Worrall, William (2023-01-18). "Colossal Cave Review". TechRaptor. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  31. 1 2 Reinhard, Andrew (2021-03-01). "Colossal Cave Archaeology: Epigraphy, FORTRAN Code-Artifacts, and the Ur -Game". Near Eastern Archaeology. 84 (1): 86–92. doi:10.1086/713375. ISSN 1094-2076. S2CID 232124673. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  32. ↑ Lebling; Blank; Anderson (1979). "Special Feature Zork: A Computerized Fantasy Simulation Game". Computer. 12 (4): 51–59. doi:10.1109/MC.1979.1658697. ISSN 0018-9162. S2CID 7845131. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-08-07.
  33. ↑ Mason, Graeme (2022-09-22). "'I saw the possibility of what could be done – so I did it': revolutionary video game The Hobbit turns 40". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2023-10-02. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rettberg, Jill Walker (2012). "Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance The Beginnings of a Field". Dichtung Digital (41). hdl:1956/6272.
  35. ↑ Spinosa, Dani (2017). "Toward a Theory of Canadian Digital Poetics". Studies in Canadian Literature / Études en littérature canadienne. 42 (2): 237–255. ISSN 0380-6995. Archived from the original on 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  36. ↑ "The Legible City | ELMCIP". elmcip.net. Archived from the original on 2022-10-17. Retrieved 2022-10-17.
  37. ↑ Bolter, J. David and Michael Joyce (1987). "Hypertext and Creative Writing", Proceedings of ACM Hypertext 1987, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States, pages 41-50
  38. ↑ Barnet, Belinda. "Machine Enhanced (Re)minding: The Development of Storyspace."
  39. ↑ Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997
  40. ↑ Moulthrop, Stuart (2021). "Hypertext Fiction Ever After". Electronic Literature as Digital Humanities: Contexts, Forms, and Practice (PDF). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-5013-6349-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-07-31. Retrieved 2023-07-31.
  41. ↑ "Hyperfiction: Novels for the Computer". archive.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
  42. ↑ O'Sullivan, James; Grigar, Dene (2018). "The Origins of Electronic Literature as Net/Web Art". In Brügger, Niels; Milligan, Ian (eds.). The SAGE Handbook of Web History. Sage Publishing. pp. 429–430. ISBN 9781526455444.
  43. ↑ Picot, Edward (2002). "Some versions of hyperfiction". Poetry Nation Review. 29 (2): 52–54. ProQuest 2418404835. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  44. ↑ "trAce/Alt-X Hypertext Competition 1998 Results". unknownhypertext.com. 1998. Archived from the original on 2017-12-16. Retrieved 2017-10-17.
  45. ↑ Rettberg, Scott; Gillespie, William; Stratton, Dirk; Marquadt, Frank (2011) [1998]. Borràs, Laura; Memmott, Talan; Raley, Rita; Stefans, Brian (eds.). "The Unknown". collection.eliterature.org. Archived from the original on 2017-10-13. Retrieved 2017-10-17.
  46. ↑ Kolb, David A. (2012). "Story/Story". Proceedings of the 23rd ACM conference on Hypertext and social media. HT '12. New York: ACM. pp. 99–102. doi:10.1145/2309996.2310013. ISBN 9781450313353. S2CID 208938632.
  47. ↑ Pisarski, Mariusz (2016). "Collaboration in e-literature". World Literature Studies. 8 (3): 78–89. ISSN 1337-9275. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2022-10-12.
  48. ↑ Ciccoricco, David (2007-11-25). Reading Network Fiction. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 9780817315894. the unknown hypertext gillespie.
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