Thelazia
Thelazia callipaeda female[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Nematoda
Class:
Secernentea
Order:
Spirurida
Family:
Thelaziidae
Genus:
Thelazia

Bosc, 1819
Species

See text

Thelazia is a genus of nematode worms which parasitize the eyes and associated tissues of various bird and mammal hosts, including humans.[2][3] They are often called "eyeworms", and infestation with Thelazia species is referred to as "thelaziasis" (occasionally spelled "thelaziosis"). Adults are usually found in the eyelids, tear glands, tear ducts, or the so-called "third eyelid" (nictitating membrane). Occasionally, they are found in the eyeball itself, either under the conjunctiva (the membrane that covers the white part of the eye) or in the vitreous cavity of the eyeball.[4] All species of Thelazia for which the life cycle has been studied are transmitted by species of Diptera (flies) which do not bite, but which feed on tears.

Representative species

  • Thelazia anolabiata (Molin, 1860)
    • Definitive hosts: Andean cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruviana) and many other Brazilian birds[5]
    • Intermediate hosts: Not known
    • Distribution: South America
  • Thelazia bubalis Ramanujachari and Alwar, 1952
    • Definitive hosts: Water buffalo
    • Intermediate hosts: Not known
    • Distribution: India
  • Thelazia californiensis Price, 1930
  • Thelazia callipaeda Railliet & Henry, 1910 (sometimes called "Oriental eyeworm")
    • Definitive hosts: Typically reported from dog (Canis familiaris), cat (Felis catus), and occasionally reported from grey wolf (Canis lupus), raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Over 250 cases of T. callipaeda infestation in humans have been reported thus far.[6]
    • Intermediate hosts: Fruit flies (Amiota (Phortica) variegata in Europe, and Phortica okadai in China)
    • Distribution: Asia and Europe
  • Thelazia erschowi Oserskaja, 1931
  • Thelazia gulosa (Railliet & Henry, 1910)
    • Definitive hosts: Yak (Bos grunniens) and other cattle (Bos taurus), and rarely human (Homo sapiens)
    • Intermediate hosts: Face fly (Musca autumnalis) in Europe and North America, Musca larvipara in Ukraine, Musca vitripennis in Crimea, and Musca amica in the Far East
    • Distribution: Asia, Europe, and North America
  • Thelazia lacrymalis (Gurlt, 1831)
    • Definitive hosts: Horse (Equus caballus) and cattle (Bos taurus)
    • Intermediate hosts: Face fly (Musca autumnalis) and Musca osiris
    • Distribution: Asia, Europe, Middle East, North America and South America
  • Thelazia leesei Railliet & Henry, 1910
  • Thelazia rhodesii (Desmarest, 1828)
  • Thelazia skrjabini Erschow, 1928
    • Definitive hosts: Cattle (Bos taurus) and yak (Bos grunniens)
    • Intermediate hosts: Face fly (Musca autumnalis), Musca vitripennis, and Musca amica
    • Distribution: Europe and North America

Human infections/cases

Thelazia anolabiata

Thelazia anolabiata is a spirurid nematode living in the orbits of birds which can cause lacrimation, keratitis, conjunctivitis, and corneal ulcers. This species is reported for the first time from an Andean Cock of the Rock, Rupicola peruviana (Passeriformes: Cotingidae), from a zoo in Lima, Peru. Clinical signs of keratoconjunctivitis were resolved with the treatment of ivermectin, ciprofloxacin, and an epithelium regenerator, and the host is presently in good health. The nematodes were identified using the primary characteristics used to differentiate the species of this genus as lengths of spicules and other morphologic characteristics.[7]

Thelazia californiensis

The eyeworm, Thelazia californiensis is a spiruroid nematode. It was first described by Price in 1930, as a parasite of dogs in the western United States. T. Californiensis can infest dog, cat, sheep, deer and other mammals and causes a disease known as thelaziasis. This is not a common disease. This eyeworm commonly parasitizes in the tear ducts and conjunctival sac of its hosts, and appears as a creamy, thin-white thread measuring slightly over a half an inch in length. The adult worms may be found in the conjunctival sac or tear ducts. The eggs or larvae can be seen when the tears or secretions are examined under the microscope. The eyeworms are most common on the Pacific Coast. Human can become infested, but is extremely rare and thought to be accidental. There are only few reports of Thelazia californiensis infestation in humans.[8]

Thelazia callipaeda

Thelazia callipaeda eye worm is a nematode transmitted by drosophilid flies not only primarily to carnivores and lagomorphs but also to humans. Only a few cases have been reported in Europe (Italy, France, and Portugal). Here, we report the first eye infection in a German patient.[9]

Thelazia gulosa

Thelazia gulosa, the cattle eyeworm, was found in the left eye of a 26-year-old woman from Oregon in 2018. This case was the first-ever reported human infection from this genus.[10] The ten previous cases reported from the United States were caused by Thelazia californiensis. Human infections caused by Thelazia callipaeda have also been reported in Japan, China, India, Taiwan, Burma, Thailand, Korea, Indonesia, Italy, Russia, and France.

The 26-year-old woman had been practicing horsemanship in Gold Beach, Oregon, which is a region where cattle farming is common. After a few weeks, her left eye started to feel irritated followed by a sensation of a foreign object. On the eighth day of her symptoms, she found and removed a small, translucent worm from her eye. She went to a local physician, who found and removed two more worms. These worms were sent to Northwest Pathology for analysis and identification. It was then forwarded to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Parasitic Diseases Reference Laboratory for identification.

The next day, the woman went to an optometrist where three more worms were removed. She was sent to see an infectious disease specialist, who was able to remove a partial worm. The patient was diagnosed with parasitic infiltration of the left periocular tissues and a secondary bilateral papillary reaction of the upper and lower palpebral conjunctive. Even after multiple washouts by ophthalmologists, no more worms were seen, but the patient continued to remove additional worms from her eye. Over 20 days, a total of 14 worms were removed. Since then, the patient no longer had any symptoms and no more worms were detected.

Thelazia lacrymalis

Equine thelaziosis is a neglected vector-borne parasitic disease in modern veterinary medicine, lacking recent reports. It is transmitted by Musca autumnalis, and potentially other Muscidae species, by ingesting the lachrymal secretions of its equine host. The distribution of both Thelazia lacrymalis and its intermediate hosts remains largely unknown throughout Europe, with most studies dating back 20 years. The aim of this study was to assess the presence, prevalence and distribution of T. lacrymalis in horses from Romania.[11]

Thelazia skrjabini

Examination of 122 eyes and 162 nasolachrymal ducts of cattle over 8 years old in Denmark revealed Thelazia skrjabini in 2 cows. This is the first record of Thelazia in Denmark.[12]

See also

References

  1. ↑ This image is from Otranto, Domenico; Dutto, Moreno (2008). "Human Thelaziasis, Europe". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 14 (4): 647–649. doi:10.3201/eid1404.071205. PMC 2570937. PMID 18394285.
  2. ↑ Otranto, D.; Traversa, D. (2005). "Thelazia eyeworm: An original endo- and ecto-parasitic nematode". Trends in Parasitology. 21 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2004.10.008. PMID 15639731.
  3. ↑ do Vale, Beatriz; Lopes, Ana Patrícia; da Conceição Fontes, Maria; Silvestre, Mário; Cardoso, Luís; Coelho, Ana Cláudia (2020). "Systematic review on infection and disease caused by Thelazia callipaeda in Europe: 2001–2020". Parasite. 27: 52. doi:10.1051/parasite/2020048. ISSN 1776-1042. PMC 7526429. PMID 32996882.
  4. ↑ Xue, Chunyan; Tian, Nong; Huang, Zhenping (2007). "Thelazia callipaeda in human vitreous". Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology. 42 (6): 884–885. doi:10.3129/i07-167. PMID 18059522.
  5. ↑ de Oliveira Rodrigues, H. (1992) "Thelazia anolabiata (Molin, 1860) Railliet & Henry, 1910 (Nematoda: Thelazioidea), a new host record and systematic considerations." Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 87(Suppl 1):217-222.
  6. ↑ KOYAMA Y; OHIRA A; KONO T; YONEYAMA T; SHIWAKU K (2000). "Five cases of thelaziasis". The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 84 (4): 439. doi:10.1136/bjo.84.4.439c. PMC 1723424. PMID 10777285.
  7. ↑ Elias, R.; Mamani, J.; Hermoza, C.; Kinsella, J. (2008-12-20). "First report of thelaziosis (Thelazia anolabiata) in an Andean Cock of the Rock (Rupicola peruviana) from Peru". Veterinary Parasitology. 158 (4): 382–383. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.09.016. ISSN 0304-4017. PMID 18980808.
  8. ↑ "Case 279 --Clinical Microbiology Case". path.upmc.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  9. ↑ Dolff, S.; Kehrmann, J.; Eisermann, P.; Dalbah, S.; Tappe, D.; Rating, P. (2020). "Case Report: Thelazia callipaeda Eye Infection: The First Human Case in Germany". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 102 (2): 350–351. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.19-0483. PMC 7008349. PMID 31912777.
  10. ↑ Bradbury, R. S.; Breen, K. V.; Bonura, E. M.; Hoyt, J. W.; Bishop, H. S. (2018). "Case Report: Conjunctival Infestation with Thelazia gulosa: A Novel Agent of Human Thelaziasis in the United States". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 98 (4): 1171–1174. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0870. PMC 5928835. PMID 29436343.
  11. ↑ Cotuțiu, Vlad-Dan; Ionică, Angela Monica; Lefkaditis, Menelaos; Cazan, Cristina Daniela; Hașaș, Alina Diana; Mihalca, Andrei Daniel (2022-11-14). "Thelazia lacrymalis in horses from Romania: epidemiology, morphology and phylogenetic analysis". Parasites & Vectors. 15 (1): 425. doi:10.1186/s13071-022-05532-z. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 9664606. PMID 36376981.
  12. ↑ "How to access research remotely". www.cabdirect.org. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
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