Generalized arterial calcification of infancy
Other namesIdiopathic infantile arterial calcification (IIAC), arterial calcification of infancy, idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy (IACI), occlusive infantile arterial calcification, occlusive infantile arteriopathy[1]
SpecialtyMedical genetics

Generalized arterial calcification of infancy (GACI) is an extremely rare[2] genetic disorder. It is caused by mutations in the ENPP1 gene in 75% of the subjects[3] or in mutations in the ABCC6 genes in 10% of patients.[4] However, sometimes individuals affected with GACI do not have mutations in the ENPP1 or ABCC6 gene and in those cases the cause of the disorder is unknown.[4]

The condition usually affects infants during the first 6 months of life. This condition is inherited as an autosomal recessive pattern. It is characterized by generalized calcification of the arterial internal elastic lamina, leading to rupture of the lamina and occlusive changes in the tunica intima with stenosis and decreased elasticity of the vessel wall.[5] Unfortunately, many infants die of vaso-occlusive disease, especially of the coronary arteries.[6]

There are 2 forms of GACI that can be indicated on a genetic test:

GACI Type 1 is caused by mutations in the ENPP1 gene. It is called ENPP1 Deficiency. Patients with the ENPP1 Deficiency are at risk of developing Autosomal Recessive Hypophosphatemic Rickets Type 2 (ARHR2).  ARHR2 can cause weakening in the bones, pain in bones and joints bone deformities (knocked knees, bowed legs), dental problems, calcification of ligaments and short stature. With proper treatment the bones can be strengthened and side effects minimized.[7][8][9]

GACI Type 2 is caused by mutations in the ABCC6 gene. It is called ABCC6 Deficiency. As children affected by GACI due to ABCC6 Deficiency get older, they can develop characteristics similar to pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE). This condition affects the elastic tissue of the skin, the eye, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems.[7][8][9]

Signs and symptoms

Clinical presentation is variable. First symptoms usually occur at birth but can take place in the first 6 months of life or in utero.[2]

Clinical Signs for GACI can include:

Cause

GACI is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

The condition results from an inactivating mutation in the ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase-1 (ENPP1 gene) or the ATP-binding C member 6 (ABBC6 gene), leading to decreased inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi).[7] This is a potent inhibitor of calcium deposition in the vessel wall. These mutations allow for unregulated calcium deposition within muscular arteries. The symptoms are caused by calcification of large and medium-sized arteries, including the aorta, coronary arteries, and renal arteries.

Recently, homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations for ENPP1 gene were reported as causative for the disorder. ENPP1 regulates extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), a major inhibitor of extracellular matrix calcification.[16]

The critical period for babies affected by GACI is during the first 6 months after birth. This is due to calcium continuing to build up in the artery walls. If blood flow becomes restricted it can become life threatening.[7]

GACI affects males and females equally and occurs in populations all across the world. It is estimated to occur in approximately 1 out of every 391,000 births with the carrier rate being 1:312. Survival statistics vary greatly.[7]

Diagnosis

Generalized arterial calcification of infancy should always be considered in infants and children presenting with hypertension, cardiac failure, or sudden death.[17] Plain radiography,[18] sonography[19] and MRI[20] can aid in the diagnosis. Postnatal gray-scale and color Doppler echocardiographic and sonographic examinations allowed noninvasive diagnosis, assessment of severity, and monitoring of progression.[21] Contrast-enhanced MR angiography with breath-hold and cardiac gating techniques can allow evaluation of the extent of the disease.[22]

  • Dilated and hypertrophied ventricles
  • Extramedullary hematopoiesis of liver [23]
  • Hypertrophy of myocardium
  • Bright and hyper-reflective myocardium[24]
  • Periarticular calcifications in the wrists, ears, shoulders, ankles and hip[25][26]
  • Heart usually looks structurally normal
  • Cardiomegaly and pulmonary plethora[24]
  • Diffuse arterial calcification involving aorta, carotid, cerebral, renal, mesenteric and cardiac arteries
  • Echo-dense aortic annulus, ascending aorta, transverse arch, descending aorta, main pulmonary artery, and coronary arteries unusually.[27]
  • Abdominal ultrasound can reveal hepatosplenomegaly, ascites, renal echogenicity and diffused arterial calcifications involving the aorta, common iliac, splenic, and renal arteries, as well as peritoneal calcifications involving the visceral peritoneum overlying the liver and intestine
  • Brain ultrasound can show dilated lateral ventricles, poorly developed corpus callosum, and leukomalacia
  • Echocardiogram can reveal a structurally normal heart, normal ventricular function, however mild concentric ventricular hypertrophy and multiple intracardiac as well as vascular calcifications[10]
  • Generalized arterial calcification of infancy should be suspected when there is hyperechogenicity of vessel walls, evidence of polyhydramnios or a past history of early neonatal deaths.[28]
  • DNA testing can identify one of the mutations responsible for the condition[29]

Prevention

  • Potential role of genetic markers in the identification of persons at risk.[30] There is a 75% probability to identify the two ENPP1 mutations or 10% with ABCC6 mutations (one paternal, one maternal) that cause GACI.[4] Once the mutations are identified, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) or chorionic villus sampling (CVS) are possible options to identify the condition, either before or during pregnancy.
  • At week 20 of gestation, it is possible to detect an Echogenic intracardiac focus (EIF)[31] or intravascular calcifications, particularly in the iliac and [abdominal aorta]. EIF is a small bright spot seen in the baby’s heart on an ultrasound exam. This is thought to represent mineralization, or small deposits of calcium hydroxyapatite,[32] in the muscle of the heart. EIFs are found in about 3-5% of normal pregnancies and cause no health problems.
  • Ultrasound can show subtle intravascular calcifications, particularly in the abdominal aorta at week 23.[33]
  • Calcification has been detected at 33 weeks' gestation.[34]
  • The earliest detected manifestation (echogenic foci in the mitral valve Hepatic vascular) of the disease was prenatally at 14 weeks gestation.[7]

Treatment

  • Currently, there is no curative treatment for GACI. However, in recent years, better medical treatment has led to increased survival rates.[7]
  • Use of bisphosphonates appears to significantly increase survival. Etidronate, a non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate, is the most commonly used based on its potent antimineralization effect.[7]
  • Prenatal[35] and postnatal treatment with low-dose, cyclical bisphosphonates, also called diphosphonate, resulted in a complete resolution of vascular calcifications in some cases using disodium pamidronate and risedronate.[36][37][38][39][40]
  • Sodium Thiosulfate (STS) is a calcium-chelating agent. It is typically used by patients who have excess calcium in their arteries due to kidney disease. In recent years, STS has also been used to treat patients with GACI.Proposed mechanism of STS action includes  chelation or increased solubility of over mineralized calcium in arteries to be removed from the body. STS is typically administered intravenously through a central line in the chest. The dosage amount and length of time for STS treatment is determined by the patient’s medical team.[7]
  • PGE1 infusion is a possible therapeutic alternative for babies with idiopathic arterial calcification complicated by severe hypertension refractory to conventional treatment.[41]
  • Infants must reach a certain weight to allow for a transplant, commonly not reached.[42] There is minimal information available about heart transplants in patients with GACI. There is some clinical evidence that heart transplants can be successful, without recurrence of calcifications. Heart transplant for individuals with GACI has occurred in at least 3 known cases. In 2014, there was a follow up report about a 4 year old child with GACI who had a successful heart transplant.[43]

Prognosis

  • Survival to adulthood has been reported,[44][45] sometimes with persistent hypertension and cardiovascular sequelae.
  • Spontaneous regression of arterial calcifications can occur, and antihypertensive treatment can be tapered off gradually. In some patients, the natural course of GACI may be more favourable than previously assumed.[46][47]
  • Despite the same genotype and similar sonographic and radiographic features in early infancy, the phenotype of GACI can vary to a great extent within one family.[48]

Research

In 2015, Demetrios Braddock, MD, PhD, a pathologist and professor from Yale University along with his team published an article in Nature Communications.[49] Their research revealed when mice with GACI were given a replacement version of the enzyme, it helped to reduce the calcifications and prevented the animals from dying.[49][50][51] This discovery has led to the development of Inozyme Pharma[51][9] a biotechnology company developing new medicines to treat rare disorders of calcification including GACI.[52]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Witzleben, C.L (1970). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification—A misnomer?". The American Journal of Cardiology. 26 (3): 305–9. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(70)90798-8. PMID 4196111.
  2. 1 2 Chong, Curtis R.; Hutchins, Grover M. (2008). "Idiopathic Infantile Arterial Calcification: The Spectrum of Clinical Presentations". Pediatric and Developmental Pathology. 11 (5): 405–15. doi:10.2350/07-06-0297.1. PMID 17990935. S2CID 9031166.
  3. ↑ Rutsch, Frank; Ruf, Nico; Vaingankar, Sucheta; Toliat, Mohammad R.; Suk, Anita; Höhne, Wolfgang; Schauer, Galen; Lehmann, Mandy; et al. (2003). "Mutations in ENPP1 are associated with 'idiopathic' infantile arterial calcification". Nature Genetics. 34 (4): 379–81. doi:10.1038/ng1221. PMID 12881724. S2CID 12784972.
  4. 1 2 3 "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy". Genetic Home Reference-US National Library of Medicine.
  5. ↑ Greenberg, S. Bruce; Gibson, James (2005). "New Findings in Idiopathic Arterial Calcification of Infancy Detected by MDCT". American Journal of Roentgenology. 185 (2): 530–2. doi:10.2214/ajr.185.2.01850530. PMID 16037532.
  6. ↑ Rutsch, Frank; Boyer, Petra; Nitschke, Yvonne; Ruf, Nico; Lorenz-Depierieux, Bettina; Wittkampf, Tanja; Weissen-Plenz, Gabriele; Fischer, Rudolf-Josef; et al. (2008). "Hypophosphatemia, Hyperphosphaturia, and Bisphosphonate Treatment Are Associated with Survival Beyond Infancy in Generalized Arterial Calcification of Infancy". Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics. 1 (2): 133–40. doi:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.108.797704. PMC 2794045. PMID 20016754.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Ferreira, Carlos; Ziegler, Shira; Gahl, William A. (1993), Adam, Margaret P.; Ardinger, Holly H.; Pagon, Roberta A.; Wallace, Stephanie E. (eds.), "Generalized Arterial Calcification of Infancy", GeneReviews®, University of Washington, Seattle, PMID 25392903, retrieved 2019-10-17
  8. 1 2 Ferreira, Carlos R.; van Karnebeek, Clara D. M.; Vockley, Jerry; Blau, Nenad (January 2019). "A proposed nosology of inborn errors of metabolism". Genetics in Medicine. 21 (1): 102–106. doi:10.1038/s41436-018-0022-8. ISSN 1530-0366. PMC 6286709. PMID 29884839.
  9. 1 2 3 "Company". Inozyme Pharma. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
  10. 1 2 Abu-Asbeh, J; Khan, J; Shallal, A (2006). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification associated with leukomalacia". Journal of the Arab Neonatology Forum. 3 (1): 15–9. Archived from the original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2013-05-14.
  11. ↑ Nagar, Arpit M.; Hanchate, Vijay; Tandon, Ankit; Thakkar, Hemangini; Chaubal, Nitin G. (2003-06-01). "Antenatal Detection of Idiopathic Arterial Calcification With Hydrops Fetalis". Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 22 (6): 653–9. doi:10.7863/jum.2003.22.6.653. PMID 12795564.
  12. ↑ Maayan, Ch.; Peleg, O.; Eyal, F.; Mogle, P.; Rosenmann, E.; Ziv, J. Bar (1984). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: A case report and review of the literature". European Journal of Pediatrics. 142 (3): 211–5. doi:10.1007/BF00442452. PMID 6468446. S2CID 5646069.
  13. ↑ Milner, Laurence S.; Heitner, René; Thomson, Peter D.; Levin, Solomon E.; Rothberg, Alan D.; Beale, Peter; Ninin, Daniel T. (1984). "Hypertension as the major problem of idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy". The Journal of Pediatrics. 105 (6): 934–8. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(84)80080-3. PMID 6502343.
  14. ↑ Hunt, A. C.; Leys, D. G. (1957). "Generalized Arterial Calcification of Infancy". BMJ. 1 (5015): 385–6. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5015.385. PMC 1974337. PMID 13396267.
  15. ↑ Thiaville, A.; Smets, A.; Clercx, A.; Perlmutter, N. (1994). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: A surviving patient with renal artery stenosis". Pediatric Radiology. 24 (7): 506–8. doi:10.1007/BF02015014. PMID 7885787. S2CID 12071177.
  16. ↑ Rutsch, Frank; Vaingankar, Sucheta; Johnson, Kristen; Goldfine, Ira; Maddux, Betty; Schauerte, Petra; Kalhoff, Hermann; Sano, Kimihiko; et al. (2001). "PC-1 Nucleoside Triphosphate Pyrophosphohydrolase Deficiency in Idiopathic Infantile Arterial Calcification". The American Journal of Pathology. 158 (2): 543–54. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63996-X. PMC 1850320. PMID 11159191.
  17. ↑ Hault, Kathrin; Sebire, Neil J.; Ho, Siew Y.; Sheppard, Mary N. (2008). "The difficulty in diagnosing idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy, its variation in presentation, and the importance of autopsy". Cardiology in the Young. 18 (6): 624–7. doi:10.1017/S1047951108003168. PMID 18842162. S2CID 6649860.
  18. ↑ Lussier-Lazaroff, J.; Fletcher, B. D. (1973). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Roentgen diagnosis of a rare cause of coronary artery occlusion". Pediatric Radiology. 1 (4): 224–8. doi:10.1007/BF00972856. PMID 4779072. S2CID 37195633.
  19. ↑ Rosenbaum, DM; Blumhagen, JD (1986). "Sonographic recognition of idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy". American Journal of Roentgenology. 146 (2): 249–50. doi:10.2214/ajr.146.2.249. PMID 3510511.
  20. ↑ Pao, D. G.; Deangelis, G. A.; Lovell, Mark A.; Hagspiel, Klaus D.; Hagspiel, KD (1998). "Idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy: Sonographic and magnetic resonance findings with pathologic correlation". Pediatric Radiology. 28 (4): 256–9. doi:10.1007/s002470050344. PMID 9545482. S2CID 21204937.
  21. ↑ Whitehall, John; Smith, Mark; Altamirano, Louis (2003). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Sonographic findings". Journal of Clinical Ultrasound. 31 (9): 497–501. doi:10.1002/jcu.10208. PMID 14595743. S2CID 23001702.
  22. ↑ Tran, Kim H.; Boechat, M. Ines (2006). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Imaging evaluation and the usefulness of MR angiography". Pediatric Radiology. 36 (3): 247–53. doi:10.1007/s00247-005-0044-7. PMID 16429273. S2CID 12326688.
  23. ↑ Sharmila, N.; Prashant, S. Joshi; Ravikumar, Vani (Jan–Mar 2010). "Idiopathic Infantile arterial calcification–A Very rare case". Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences. 9 (1). ISSN 0972-5997.
  24. 1 2 Inwald, D P; Yen Ho, S; Shepherd, M N; Daubeney, P E F (2006). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification presenting as fatal hypertensive cardiomyopathy". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (11): 928. doi:10.1136/adc.2006.103093. PMC 2082956. PMID 17056867.
  25. ↑ Vera, J.; Lucaya, J.; Garcia Conesa, J. A.; Aso, C.; Balaguer, A. (1990). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Unusual features". Pediatric Radiology. 20 (8): 585–7. doi:10.1007/BF02129060. PMID 2251001. S2CID 39010437.
  26. ↑ Conn, Jessica; Hussaini, Shaheen; Greenberg, S. Bruce; Vanderzalm, Theodora; Klein, Sarah G. "Idiopathic Arterial Calcification of Infancy" (PDF). Little Rock, Arkansas: University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Arkansas Children's Hospital.
  27. ↑ Levine, J. C.; Campbell, J.; Nadel, A. (2001). "Prenatal Diagnosis of Idiopathic Infantile Arterial Calcification". Circulation. 103 (2): 325–6. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.103.2.325. PMID 11208697.
  28. ↑ Sundaram, S; Kuruvilla, S; Thirupuram, S (2004). "Idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy - a case report". Images in Paediatric Cardiology. 6 (1): 6–12. PMC 3232550. PMID 22368635.
  29. ↑ Dlamini, Nomazulu; Splitt, Miranda; Durkan, Anne; Siddiqui, Ata; Padayachee, Soundrie; Hobbins, Sue; Rutsch, Frank; Wraige, Elizabeth (2009). "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy: Phenotypic spectrum among three siblings including one case without obvious arterial calcifications". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 149A (3): 456–60. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32646. PMID 19206175. S2CID 33406978.
  30. ↑ Eller, Philipp; Hochegger, Kathrin; Feuchtner, Gudrun M.; Zitt, Emanuel; Tancevski, Ivan; Ritsch, Andreas; Kronenberg, Florian; Rosenkranz, Alexander R.; et al. (2007). "Impact of ENPP1 genotype on arterial calcification in patients with end-stage renal failure". Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation. 23 (1): 321–7. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfm566. PMID 17848394.
  31. ↑ Nasrallah, F. K.; Baho, H.; Sallout, A.; Qurashi, M. (2009). "Prenatal diagnosis of idiopathic infantile arterial calcification with hydrops fetalis". Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 34 (5): 601–4. doi:10.1002/uog.7438. PMID 19813208.
  32. ↑ Meradji, M.; De Villeneuve, V.H.; Huber, J.; De Bruijn, W.C.; Pearse, R.G. (1978). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification in siblings: Radiologic diagnosis and successful treatment". The Journal of Pediatrics. 92 (3): 401–5. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80427-2. PMID 416189.
  33. ↑ "SONOWORLD : Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification".
  34. ↑ Stuart, G; Wren, C; Bain, H (1990). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification in two siblings: Failure of treatment with diphosphonate". Heart. 64 (2): 156–9. doi:10.1136/hrt.64.2.156. PMC 1024357. PMID 2118367.
  35. ↑ Bellah, Richard D.; Zawodniak, Len; Librizzi, Ronald J.; Harris, Mary Catherine (1992). "Idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy: Prenatal and postnatal effects of therapy in an infant". The Journal of Pediatrics. 121 (6): 930–3. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80345-2. PMID 1447660.
  36. ↑ Ramjan, Kim A; Roscioli, Tony; Rutsch, Frank; Sillence, David; Munns, Craig FJ (2009). "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy: Treatment with bisphosphonates". Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology & Metabolism. 5 (3): 167–72. doi:10.1038/ncpendmet1067. PMID 19229237. S2CID 24401990.
  37. ↑ Dyck, M.; Proesmans, W.; Hollebeke, E.; Marchal, G.; Moerman, Ph. (1989). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification with cardiac, renal and central nervous system involvement". European Journal of Pediatrics. 148 (4): 374–7. doi:10.1007/BF00444138. PMID 2707283. S2CID 22760957.
  38. ↑ Ramjan, Kim; Munns, Craig; Roscioli, Tony; Sillence, David. "Successful treatment of infantile arterial calcification (IAC) with bisphosphonates" (PDF).
  39. ↑ Sluis, Inge M.; Boot, Annemieke M.; Vernooij, Meike; Meradji, Morteza; Kroon, André A. (2006). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Clinical presentation, therapy and long-term follow-up". European Journal of Pediatrics. 165 (9): 590–3. doi:10.1007/s00431-006-0146-8. PMID 16649023. S2CID 2365378.
  40. ↑ Culling, Bronwyn; Loughran-Fowlds, Alison; Munns, Craig; Sillence, David; Walsh, Corrina; Taylor, Peter; Buckley, Michael; Rutsch, Frank; Roscioli, Tony (August 6–10, 2006). Infantile Arterial Calcification: Successful Treatment with Bisphosphonate. 11th International Congress of Human Genetics. Brisbane, Australia. Archived from the original on May 12, 2006.
  41. ↑ Ciana, G.; Colonna, F.; Forleo, V.; Brizzi, F.; Benettoni, A.; de Vonderweid, U. (1997). "Idiopathic Arterial Calcification of Infancy: Effectiveness of Prostaglandin Infusion for Treatment of Secondary Hypertension Refractory to Conventional Therapy: Case Report". Pediatric Cardiology. 18 (1): 67–71. doi:10.1007/s002469900114. PMID 8960499. S2CID 1520872.
  42. ↑ Glatz, Andrew C.; Pawel, Bruce R.; Hsu, Daphne T.; Weinberg, Paul; Chrisant, Maryanne R. K. (2006). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification: Two case reports, a review of the literature and a role for cardiac transplantation". Pediatric Transplantation. 10 (2): 225–33. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3046.2005.00414.x. PMID 16573612. S2CID 42109157.
  43. ↑ Giovannoni, Isabella; Callea, Francesco; Travaglini, Lorena; Amodeo, Antonio; Cogo, Paola; Secinaro, Aurelio; Bizzarri, Carla; Cutrera, Renato; El Hachem, May; Francalanci, Paola (2014-11-01). "Heart transplant and 2-year follow up in a child with generalized arterial calcification of infancy". European Journal of Pediatrics. 173 (12): 1735–1740. doi:10.1007/s00431-014-2447-7. ISSN 0340-6199. PMID 25367056. S2CID 6398987.
  44. ↑ Sholler, Gary F.; Yu, John S.; Bale, Patricia M.; Hawker, Richard E.; Celermajer, John M.; Kozlowski, Kasimir (1984). "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy: Three case reports, including spontaneous regression with long-term survival". The Journal of Pediatrics. 105 (2): 257–60. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(84)80123-7. PMID 6747757.
  45. ↑ Marrott, Pran K.; Newcombe, Ken D.; Becroft, David M. O.; Friedlander, Denis H. (1984). "Idiopathic infantile arterial calcification with survival to adult life". Pediatric Cardiology. 5 (2): 119–22. doi:10.1007/BF02424963. PMID 6473121. S2CID 6991285.
  46. ↑ Ciana, Giovanni; Trappan, Antonella; Bembi, Bruno; Benettoni, Alessandra; Maso, Giampaolo; Zennaro, Floriana; Ruf, Nico; Schnabel, Dirk; Rutsch, Frank (2005). "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy: Two siblings with prolonged survival". European Journal of Pediatrics. 165 (4): 258–63. doi:10.1007/s00431-005-0035-6. PMID 16315058. S2CID 13310507.
  47. ↑ Thomas, Philomena; Chandra, Manju; Kahn, Ellen; McVicar, Melinda; Naidich, James; Lacorte, Michael (1990). "Idiopathic arterial calcification of infancy: A case with prolonged survival". Pediatric Nephrology. 4 (3): 233–5. doi:10.1007/BF00857661. PMID 2400650. S2CID 40660217.
  48. ↑ Cheng, Kun-Shan; Chen, Ming-Ren; Ruf, Nico; Lin, Shuan-Pei; Rutsch, Frank (2005). "Generalized arterial calcification of infancy: Different clinical courses in two affected siblings". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 136A (2): 210–3. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30800. PMID 15940697. S2CID 22783574.
  49. 1 2 Albright, Ronald A.; Stabach, Paul; Cao, Wenxiang; Kavanagh, Dillon; Mullen, Isabelle; Braddock, Alexander A.; Covo, Mariel S.; Tehan, Martin; Yang, Guangxiao; Cheng, Zhiliang; Bouchard, Keith (December 2015). "ENPP1-Fc prevents mortality and vascular calcifications in rodent model of generalized arterial calcification of infancy". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 10006. Bibcode:2015NatCo...610006A. doi:10.1038/ncomms10006. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4686714. PMID 26624227.
  50. ↑ "Demetrios Braddock > Doctor at Yale Medicine". Yale Medicine. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
  51. 1 2 "News + Media for 10/2019 | Office of Cooperative Research". ocr.yale.edu. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
  52. ↑ "Inozyme Pharma, Inc. - Massachusetts Biotechnology Council". www.massbio.org. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.