German–Turkish relations
Map indicating locations of Germany and Turkey

Germany
Turkey
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of Germany, AnkaraEmbassy of Turkey, Berlin

German–Turkish relations (German: Deutsch-türkische Beziehungen; Turkish: Almanya-Türkiye ilişkileri) have their beginnings in the times of the Ottoman Empire and they have culminated in the development of strong bonds with many facets that include economic, military, cultural and social relations. With Turkey as a candidate for the European Union, of which Germany is the largest member, and the existence of a significant Turkish diaspora in Germany, these relations have become more and more intertwined over the decades. Relations with Turkey significantly deteriorated after the 2016–17 Turkish purges[1][2][3][4][5] including the arrest of journalists such as Die Welt's Deniz Yücel. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO. Germany opposes Turkey's European Union membership.

History

"The Great Gun" (1518), an allegorical representation by Albrecht Dürer of the Turkish menace for the German lands.
Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, painting by Frans Geffels
The three emperors of the Central Powers during World War I: Wilhelm II, Mehmed V, Franz Joseph. All three empires (German, Turkish, Austrian) came to an end in the aftermath of the war.
The summer residence of the German Consulate (German Embassy until 1923) in Tarabya, Istanbul, on the Bosphorus.

Medieval and Early Modern periods

Wars between the Holy Roman Empire and Sultanate of Rum

Wars between the Holy Roman Empire and Ottoman Empire

Late 19th century and World War I

Djemal Pasha accompanying German General Erich von Falkenhayn, who commanded the Ottoman Yildirim Army.

The German proposals to build a railway system toward Baghdad alarmed the British, for it threatened British control over the links to India. However, these issues were peacefully resolved in February 1914, and did not play a role in the July Crisis that ended in the Great War.

The Ottoman–German Alliance was an alliance between the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire made on August 2, 1914, shortly following the outbreak of World War I. The alliance was created as part of a joint-cooperative effort that would strengthen and modernize the failing Ottoman military, as well as provide Germany safe passage into neighboring British colonies. The treaty came from the initiative of the Ottomans. It was replaced in January 1915 by a full-scale military alliance that promised Ottoman entry into the war.[6][7][8] The Central Powers of World War I would eventually be made up of both the Germans and the Ottomans, as well as the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.

German General Otto Liman von Sanders was given command of the Ottoman Fifth Army defending Gallipoli.

Generals Erich von Falkenhayn and Otto Liman von Sanders commanded the Ottoman Yildirim Army during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.

World War II

German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression

During World War II, Turkey maintained diplomatic relations with Germany until August 1944. The German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship was signed on 18 June 1941. In October 1941, the "Clodius Agreement" (named after the German negotiator, Dr. Carl August Clodius) was achieved, whereby Turkey would export up to 45,000 tons of chromite ore to Germany in 1941–1942, and 90,000 tons of the mineral in each of 1943 and 1944, contingent on Germany's supplies of military equipment to Turkey. The Germans provided as many as 117 railway locomotives and 1,250 freight rail cars to transport the ore. In an attempt to prevent the supply of this strategic mineral to Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom went on a spree of what was termed "preclusive buying", buying out Turkish chromite even if they did not need so much of it. As a part of the "package deal”, the Anglo-Americans bought Turkish dried fruit and tobacco as well.[9]

In August 1944, the Soviet Army entered Bulgaria and cut overland contact between Turkey and the Axis powers. Turkey severed its diplomatic and commercial relations with Germany, and on February 23, 1945, declared war on Germany.[9]

Political relations

Accession of Turkey to the European Union

Germany's support to the Turkish bid has not been consistent in the German political arena. Support has varied over time; for example one former Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, expressed opposition on the issue, while another, Gerhard Schröder, was seen to be a staunch supporter.

Skyline of Levent financial district in Istanbul, as seen from the Bosphorus. If Turkey were to join the European Union, Istanbul would become the largest city of the EU and Turkey would be the largest EU member in terms of both area and population.

German Chancellor Angela Merkel advocated a "vaguely defined partnership"[10] and has opposed full membership of Turkey to the EU.[11][12] Current Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said in response in July 2009, "We will never accept a privileged partnership. We want full membership into the EU. We don't want anything else other than full membership.”[11]

In 2006, Merkel said "Turkey could be in deep, deep trouble when it comes to its aspirations to join the European Union" regarding its refusal to open up its ports to European Union member Cyprus.[13] She added:

We need an implementation of the Ankara Protocols regarding unrestricted trade with Cyprus too. Otherwise, the situation becomes very, very serious when it comes to the continuation of Turkey's accession negotiations. I appeal to Turkey to do everything to avoid such a complicated situation and not to lead the European Union into such a situation.

Merkel also said that she could not imagine negotiations continuing without concessions made by Ankara toward opening up its ports to Cypriot ships.[13] The Turkish Government responded by demanding that the EU lift its embargo on the Turkish-controlled part of the island in return.[14]

Angela Merkel, Emmanuel Macron, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Vladimir Putin when giving a press conference as part of Syria summit in Istanbul, Turkey.

On 20 June 2013, in the wake of Ankara's crackdown on mass demonstrations in Taksim Square and throughout the country, Germany blocked the start to new EU accession talks with Turkey.[15] According to the Financial Times, one Turkish official said that such a move could potentially break off political relations with the bloc.[15] "The EU needs Turkey more than Turkey needs the EU," Egemen Bagis, Turkey's EU minister stated.[15] "If we have to, we could tell them, "get lost.'"[15] Germany says that its reservation stems from a technical issue, but Angela Merkel has described herself as "shocked" after Ankara's use of overwhelming police force against mostly peaceful demonstrators.[15]

On 25 June EU foreign ministers backed a German proposal to postpone further EU membership talks with Turkey for about four months due to the Turkey's handling of the protests.[16] A delay in opening new chapters for Turkey would raise new doubts about whether the country should ever be admitted to the European Union.[17] In early June in comments on Turkey's possible membership German Chancellor Angela Merkel did not address the compromise proposal but said Turkey must make progress on its relations with EU member Cyprus to give impetus to its membership ambitions.[18][19]

EU sanctions

In December 2020, German Chancellor Angela Merkel was among the EU leaders who opposed sanctions against Turkey, due to its gas drilling activities in the Mediterranean and foreign policy in general.[20]

Diplomatic incidents

In August 2018, German firemen removed a four-meter golden statue of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Wiesbaden on security grounds after it provoked an angry response from local people.[21] In October 2021, in the wake of the appeal for the release of Turkish activist Osman Kavala signed by 10 western countries, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered his foreign minister to declare the German ambassador persona non grata, alongside the other 9 ambassadors.[22] However, the ambassadors did not receive any formal notice to leave the country and Erdoğan eventually stepped back.[23] In April 2022, Turkey condemned Germany's summoning of its ambassador and called in Germany’s ambassador Jürgen Schulz in a tit-for-tat move amid a row over the jailing of Turkish philanthropist Osman Kavala for life after being convicted of trying to overthrow the government by financing protests.[24]

In May 2022, Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu summoned the German and French ambassadors to Turkey to protest events organized by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in both countries.[25]

In July 2022, the website of Deutsche Welle (DW) was blocked by an Ankara court after it refused to comply with a request to obtain a broadcast licence; DW had argued that being overseen by the country’s broadcast regulator would lead to demands that would be tantamount to censorship.[26]

In May 2023, the public prosecutor's office in Darmstadt announced publicly that police had searched the private apartments of two journalists in the western town of Moerfelden-Walldorf and briefly detained them on suspicion of dangerous dissemination of personal data. In response, Turkey summoned the German ambassador in Ankara to express condemnation over the detention.[27]

State visits

The monogram of Wilhelm II and the tughra of Abdul Hamid II on the dome of the German Fountain in Istanbul, commemorating the Kaiser's visit to Turkey in 1898.

In 2006, Chancellor Angela Merkel visited Turkey for talks with Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on bilateral relations and to discuss accession of Turkey to the EU.[28]

In 2008, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan visited Berlin and met Chancellor Merkel, and also visited Munich. He suggested during the visit that the German government establish Turkish medium schools and that German high schools hire more teachers from Turkey.[29]

In 2011, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan made another visit to Germany During a speech in Düsseldorf, he urged Turks in Germany, to integrate, but not assimilate, a statement that caused a political outcry in Germany.[30]

In 2018 in advance of the Erdogan state visit, the Erdogan Not Welcome association organised protest demonstrations with about 80-200 participants in Berlin, Essen and Bielefeld.[31] For Erdogan's supporters in Turkey and abroad, the most significant event was the opening of a new multimillion-euro mega mosque in the cathedral city of Cologne. The mosque is run by the DITIB, an Islamic organization in Germany controlled by the Turkish government. It is situated in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, also collquially known as "Little Istanbul". The visit prompted criticism towards German president Frank-Walter Steinmeier who hosted a state banquet. from Deniz Yucel, a German-Turkish journalist who was jailed for a year in Turkey. Yucel called the visit a betrayal of all those who longed for a free, democratic and secular society in Turkey. German authorities warned Erdogan from using the visit for public campaigning.[32][33]

Economic relations

Germany and Turkey have held strong economic ties with one another throughout time. Machinery, electrical goods and motor vehicles and supply parts for the automobile industry account for a particularly large portion of German exports to Turkey. Textiles/leather goods and food, and increasingly motor vehicles and electronic goods, are the principal German imports from Turkey.[34] At present, companies owned by Turkish businessmen in Germany employ approximately 200 thousand people. The annual turnover of these companies has reached 45 billion marks. More than three million German tourists visit Turkey annually. More than 4000 German companies are active in Turkey. Germany has turned out to be the number one partner of Turkey in fields such as foreign trade, financial and technical cooperation, tourism and defense industry.[35]

In 2020, Germany was the biggest trade partner of Turkey, they had a bilateral trade volume of $38 billion. German companies invested nearly €25 billion in Turkey's energy sector.[36]

Arms deals

German Emperor Wilhelm II visited Istanbul in 1889 to secure the sale of German-made rifles to the Ottoman Army.[37]

Turkey is an operator of the German Type 214 submarine.[38] Moreover, Turkish Altay tanks rely on German MTU engines and RENK transmissions.[39] Germany had also provided technical assistance in developing and operating drones, Leopard tank 2A4, KORKUT anti-aircraft system, PorSav missiles, MILGEM warship, Airbus A400M Atlas and MEKO frigates.[40] As of July 2021, six German submarines were to be delivered to Turkey in 2022, in addition to five other Reis-class submarines in the next few years in a deal worth around $4 billion.[41][42]

Relationship between Turkish and German political parties

HDP and German green party

German Green party leader Cem Özdemir in Turkey during the Şırnak clashes, 15 September 2015

In May 2015, the German party Alliance '90/The Greens encouraged Turkish citizens living in Germany to vote for the Turkish Party HDP in the upcoming June 2015 Turkish general election.[43] The MP Cem Özdemir of the Green Party, a prominent opponent of the politics of Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, was given a personal security detail of three agents at the Munich Security Conference in 2018, after the Turkish security detail allegedly has identified him as a terrorist.[44]

AKP and CDU

On 16 February 2004, Angela Merkel, then chairwoman of the German opposition party CDU, met with representatives of the ruling Turkish party AKP. The press response was somewhat perplexing, as for example, the German magazine Der Spiegel first reported of a "Anti-Türkei-Reise" (Anti-Turkey-voyage) and only hours later that "CDU will mit islamischer AKP kooperieren" (CDU wants to cooperate with Islamic AKP).[45] On 31 July 2016, the German Sunday newspaper Bild am Sonntag reported, that the "Union der Vielfalt", a group of members of the CDU warned the party leadership against infiltration from the AKP.[46]

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and FDP politician Wolfgang Kubicki

In September 2022, Recep Tayyip Erdogan has filed a lawsuit against Free Democratic Party (FDP) politician and Vice-President of the Bundestag Wolfgang Kubicki for allegedly having insulted him.[47]

Turkish diaspora

Turkish and Turkish Cypriot youth performing as an Ottoman military band in Uetersen, Schleswig-Holstein.

With an estimated number of at least 2.1 million Turks in Germany, they form the largest ethnic minority.[48] The vast majority are found in Western Germany.

Based on good Turkish-German relations from the 19th century onwards, Germany promoted a Turkish immigration to Germany. However, large scale didn't occur until the 20th century. Germany suffered an acute labor shortage after World War II and, in 1961, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) officially invited Turkish workers to Germany to fill in this void, particularly to work in the factories that helped fuel Germany's economic miracle. The German authorities named these people Gastarbeiter (German for guest workers). Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia. Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority.

Turkey's purges

Free Deniz Yücel campaign in Cologne, 6 July 2017

On August 14, 2018, Turkish police arrested another German citizen on terrorism-related charges. German authorities said nine German nationals were in detention in Turkey for "political reasons" at that time.[49]

In October 2018, Germany has warned citizens visiting Turkey to be extra cautious about their social media feeds in response to a spate of cases of Germans arrested for criticism of the Turkish government. “In some cases merely ‘liking’ another's post of that nature is enough,” The Germany Foreign Ministry said that even private comments could be risky. “Non-public comments on social media can be forwarded to Turkish authorities via denunciations,”[50]

Turkish Defense Minister İsmet Yılmaz and German Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen, Incirlik Air Base, 21 January 2016

Turkish espionage in Germany

In July 2015, Der Tagesspiegel newspaper reported that German federal prosecutors were looking into claims that three men - two Turks and a German national - were instructed by MIT to spy on Erdogan critics in Cologne, particularly Kurds and members of the Muslim minority Alevi community.[51]

In 2016, Bundestag Parliamentary Oversight Panel members demanded answer from German government about the reports that Germans of Turkish origin are being pressured in Germany by informers and officers of Turkey's MIT intelligence agency. According to reports Turkey had 6,000 informants plus MIT officers in Germany who were putting pressure on "German Turks". Hans-Christian Ströbele told that there was an "unbelievable" level of "secret activities" in Germany by Turkey's MIT agency. According to Erich Schmidt-Eenboom, not even the former communist East German Stasi secret police had managed to run such a large "army of agents" in the former West Germany: "Here, it's not just about intelligence gathering, but increasingly about intelligence service repression."[51] German lawmakers have called for an investigation, charging that Turkey is spying on suspected Gulen followers in Germany.[52]

In March 2017, the Turkish secret intelligence service MIT was accused of conducting espionage of more than 300 people and 200 associations and schools linked to supporters of exiled Fethullah Gülen. Boris Pistorius, interior minister for Lower Saxony State, called this "intolerable and unacceptable", stating that "the intensity and ruthlessness with which people abroad are being investigated is remarkable". A German security official said that "we are horrified at how openly Turkey reveals that it is spying on Turks living here".[53][54][55] On 30 March 2017 Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere expresses suspicions that the move may have been intended to weigh on Turkish-German relations − "to provoke us in some way".[56] The appallment was deepened when it was revealed that the 300 persons included politicians, including Michelle Müntefering.[57][58][59]

In October 2017, according to German press reports officials working in Germany's immigration authorities pass on information about Turkish asylum seekers to Turkey. In many cases, even their locations were also revealed, that even their families did not know for security reasons. These incidents showed that Turkish spies may have infiltrated German authorities.[60] In addition, Herbert Reul, the interior minister for the German state of the North Rhine-Westphalia, submitted a report to the state parliament, alleging that the Turkish-German organisation Osmanen Germania works with MIT. The organisation denied the accusations.[61] In July 2018, Germany banned the organisation on allegations it is involved in organized crime and represents a threat to the general public.[62]

In October 2021, German authorities arrested a Turk in a hotel at Düsseldorf for spying on behalf of Turkey. Police found a pistol, ammunition and a list with the names Gulen supporters.[63]

Operation Irini

A Turkish freighter intercepted by German frigate Hamburg on 23 October 2020 with citing arms embargo to Libya. However, according to German officials, there was nothing about arms and allowed the passing of the ship. Turkish officials stated that this is a violation of maritime laws because Germany did it without permission from Turkey.[64]

Resident diplomatic missions

Country comparison

 Germany  Turkey
Population 84,388,654 85,814,871
Area 357,021  km2 (137,847 sq mi) 783,356 km2 (302,455 sq mi)
Population Density 229/km2 (593/sq mi) 102/km2 (264.2/sq mi)
Capital Berlin Ankara
Largest City Berlin – 3,769,495 (6,144,600 Metro) Istanbul – 15,214,177 (5,343.220 Metro)
Global Cities Berlin, München, Dortmund, Frankfurt am Main, Nürnberg, Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Köln, Gelsenkirchen, Bremen, Hannover, Bonn, Leverkusen, Mannheim, Bochum, Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Cottbus, Mönchengladbach, Darmstadt, Rostock, Wiesbaden, Potsdam, Münster, Essen, Osnabrück Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, Antalya, Bursa, Trabzon, Erzurum, Gaziantep, Kocaeli, Sakarya, Muğla, Diyarbakır, Kayseri, Sivas, Mardin, Eskişehir, Malatya, Edirne, Afyonkarahisar, Kırklareli, Denizli, Mersin, Tekirdağ, Adana, Şanlıurfa, Konya
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional republic Unitary presidential constitutional republic
Official language German Turkish
Current Leader President Frank-Walter Steinmeier
Chancellor Olaf Scholz		 President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Vice President Cevdet Yılmaz
Main religions 58% Christianity, 37% non-religious, 4% Islam, 1% other[65] 89.5% Islam, 8.9% non-religious, 1.6% other[66][67][68]
Ethnic groups 80% Germans, 5% Turks, 5% other Europeans, 10% other 85% Turkish, 9% Kurdish, 6% other
GDP (PPP) $3.615 trillion, $50,206 per capita $0.857 trillion[69] ($10,848 per capita)

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Turkey quickly sliding into authoritarian rule after move to increase Erdogan's powers". The Independent. 30 December 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  2. ↑ Chan, Sewell (9 January 2017). "Turkey's Parliament Starts Debate on Expansion of President's Powers". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  3. ↑ Dombey, Daniel (6 May 2014). "Turkey's Erdogan lurches toward authoritarianism". Financial Times. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
  4. ↑ "Can Turkey's Democracy Survive President Erdogan?". The New York Times. 1 November 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
  5. ↑ Braun, Stefan (28 February 2017). "Europarat sieht Türkei auf dem Weg in die Autokratie" (in German). Süddeutsche Zeitung. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  6. ↑ Hew Strachan, The First World War: Volume I: To Arms. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, 2003) pp 644-93.
  7. ↑ Gerard E. Silberstein, "The Central Powers and the Second Turkish Alliance, 1915." Slavic Review 24.1 (1965): 77-89. in JSTOR
  8. ↑ Frank G. Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the diplomacy of the Turkish alliance, 1914-1918 (Cornell University Press, 1970).
  9. 1 2 Allied Relations and Negotiations With Turkey, US State Department, pp. 6-8
  10. ↑ "Turkey ready to step up EU entry talks - Taiwan News Online". Etaiwannews.com. 30 June 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  11. 1 2 "PM: Turkey tired of EU's buts, ifs, maybes". Todayszaman.com. 8 July 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  12. ↑ Google Newspapers
  13. 1 2 "Merkel Worried about Turkey: Situation Is "Very, Very Serious" - Spiegel Online". Der Spiegel. Spiegel.de. 6 November 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  14. ↑ "The World from Berlin: Talking Tough with Turkey - Spiegel Online". Spiegel.de. 27 November 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Dombey, Daniel, James Fontanella-Khan, and Quentin Peel (21 June 2013). "Germany blocks Turkey's bid to join EU". Financial Times. Retrieved 21 June 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ "Germany proposes delaying EU-Turkey talks over protests". Reuters. 24 June 2017.
  17. ↑ "EU delays latest round of Turkish entry talks". The Irish Times. 25 June 2013.
  18. ↑ "Germany aims for compromise over Turkey EU membership talks". Financial Times.
  19. ↑ "Germany's Merkel calls on Turkey to remove hurdles to EU accession". Reuters. 24 June 2017.
  20. ↑ "Merkel and Borissov blocked EU sanctions against Turkey at summit: sources". Euractiv. 11 December 2020.
  21. ↑ Madeline Chambers (29 August 2018), Germany removes golden statue of Erdogan after protests Reuters.
  22. ↑ "Turkey to declare 10 ambassadors 'persona non grata'". dw.com. 23 October 2021.
  23. ↑ Gall, Carlota (25 October 2021). "Turkish President Steps Back From Expulsions of 10 Western Diplomats". New York Times. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
  24. ↑ Tuvan Gumrukcu (29 April 2022), Turkey, Germany summon each other's envoys amid row over jailing of Turkish philanthropist Reuters.
  25. ↑ Tuvan Gumrukcu (31 May 2022), Turkey summons German, French envoys over Kurdish militant events, minister says Reuters.
  26. ↑ Laura Pitel (1 July 2022), Turkey bans access to US and German public broadcasters Financial Times.
  27. ↑ Huseyin Hayatsever (17 May 2023), Turkey summons German envoy over detention of Turkish journalists Reuters.
  28. ↑ "The World From Berlin: Avoiding an EU-Turkey Ice Age - Spiegel Online". Der Spiegel. Spiegel.de. 5 October 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  29. ↑ "Turkey's Prime Minister Surprises Merkel: Erdogan Proposes Turkish-Medium High Schools for Germany - Spiegel Online". Der Spiegel. Spiegel.de. 8 February 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  30. ↑ Gezer, Özlem; Reimann, Anna (28 February 2011). "Erdogan Urges Turks Not to Assimilate: 'You Are Part of Germany, But Also Part of Our Great Turkey' - Spiegel Online". Der Spiegel. Spiegel.de. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  31. ↑ "Hunderte Menschen demonstrieren gegen Erdogan-Besuch". merkur.de (in German). 22 September 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
  32. ↑ "Erdogan tries to turn the page on controversial German visit, but can he succeed? - France 24". France 24. 28 September 2018. Retrieved 29 September 2018.
  33. ↑ (www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. "Gastkommentar: Der DITIB-Islam hat keinen Platz in Deutschland | DW | 26.09.2018". DW.COM (in German). Retrieved 29 September 2018.
  34. ↑ "diplo - Startseite - HTTP Status 404" (in German). Auswaertiges-amt.de. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  35. ↑ "From past to present relations between Germany and Turkey' -". Retrieved 1 January 2012.
  36. ↑ "Germany invests €25 bln in Turkish energy sector, employing 15,000". hurriyetdailynews. 3 June 2021.
  37. ↑ "Alman Çeşmesi". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 16 September 2006.
  38. ↑ "Germany rejects Greek request to freeze submarine sale to Turkey". Daily Sabah. 29 January 2021.
  39. ↑ "Turkey in talks with South Korea to salvage Altay tank program". Defense News. 19 November 2020.
  40. ↑ "Greece Wants Germany To Stop Selling Submarines to Turkey". The National Herald. 11 September 2020.
  41. ↑ "German submarines are giving Turkey an edge over Greece". Economist. 3 July 2021.
  42. ↑ "Greece Still Hopes to Halt German Submarine Deal with Turkey". VOA News. 7 July 2021.
  43. ↑ Aufruf von BÜNDNIS 90/ DIE GRÜNEN zur Wahl der HDP bei den türkischen Parlamentswahlen Archived 2016-04-23 at the Wayback Machine (Call of Alliance 90 / The Greens to vote for the HDP in the Turkish parliamentary elections, 18.05.2015) (Google translation)
  44. ↑ "Cem Özdemir über die Türkei: "Kann keine Normalisierung geben"". Der Spiegel (in German). 18 February 2018. ISSN 2195-1349. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  45. ↑ EU-Wahlkampf: Merkel auf Anti-Türkei-Reise (Spiegel-online, 16.02.2004 – 06:33 CET) (Google translation), Merkels Türkeireise: CDU will mit islamischer AKP kooperieren (Spiegel-online, 16.02.2004 – 13:36 CET)) (Google translation)
  46. ↑ "Einfluss auf Union: Migranten warnen CDU vor Infiltration durch AKP - WELT". Die Welt. 31 July 2016.
  47. ↑ Stroh, Kassian (30 September 2022). "Türkei: Präsident Erdoğan zeigt Wolfgang Kubicki wegen Verleumdung an". Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  48. ↑ Jenny B. White. "Turks in Germany: Overview of the Literature". University of Nebraska-Omaha. Archived from the original on 29 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  49. ↑ "Turkey arrests another German citizen". Deutsche Welle. 16 August 2018.
  50. ↑ "Germany warns citizens about social media posts when visiting Turkey - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 24 October 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  51. 1 2 "Report: Turkey's MIT agency menacing 'German Turks'". Deutsche Welle.
  52. ↑ "German Lawmakers Call for Probe on Imams Suspected of Spying for Turkey". turkeypurge. 10 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  53. ↑ "Germany accuses Turkey of 'unacceptable' spying". The Independent. 28 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  54. ↑ "Germany to investigate claims of 'intolerable' spying by Turkey". The Guardian. 28 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  55. ↑ "Turks in Germany warned over surveillance from Ankara". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  56. ↑ "Germany: Turkish spy list may be deliberate provocation". Fox News. 30 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  57. ↑ "Müntefering wirft türkischem Geheimdienst Denunziation vor". tagesschau.de (in German). Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  58. ↑ "Name of German SPD lawmaker Michelle Müntefering found on Turkish spying list". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  59. ↑ "Spionage-Affäre: Michelle Müntefering auf türkischer Geheimdienstliste". Faz.net (in German). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 29 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  60. ↑ "Turkey spies betray asylum seekers in Germany – DW – 10/16/2017". dw.com. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  61. ↑ "'Sons of AKP': Turkish-German biker gang accused of aiding Turkish spies". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  62. ↑ "Germany bans Turkish biker gang Osmanen Germania - World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 July 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  63. ↑ "Germany investigates man on suspicion of spying for Turkey". dw.com.
  64. ↑ "Turkey protests German search of Libya-bound Turkish ship". AP NEWS. 23 November 2020.
  65. ↑ Religionszugehörigkeit, Deutschland Archived 2015-12-25 at the Wayback Machine, fowid.de (in German)
  66. ↑ Özkök, Ertuğrul (21 May 2019). "Turkey is no longer the country with 99% population is Muslim".
  67. ↑ "Faith survey from Optimar: 89% of population believes monotheism" (in Turkish). T24.com.tr. 15 May 2019.
  68. ↑ "Tengrism is also rising". odatv.com (in Turkish). OdaTV. 9 April 2018. Archived from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
  69. ↑ "International Monetary Fund, Report on selected countries". imf.org. Retrieved 24 June 2017.

Further reading

  • Flaningam, M. L. "German Eastward Expansion, Fact and Fiction: A Study in German Ottoman Trade Relations 1890-1914" Journal of Central European Affairs (1955) 14#4 pp 319–333.
  • McMurray, Jonathan S. Distant ties: Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and the construction of the Baghdad railway (Greenwood, 2001).
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