| Dom | |
|---|---|
| Dom [ndom˩˥] | |
| Native to | Papua New Guinea |
| Region | Gumine District and Sinasina District of the Simbu Province |
Native speakers | 16,000 (2006)[1] |
Trans–New Guinea
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | doa |
| Glottolog | domm1246 |
Dom is a Trans–New Guinea language of the Eastern Group of the Chimbu family, spoken in the Gumine and Sinasina Districts of Chimbu Province and in some other isolated settlements in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea.[2]
Sociolinguistic Background
The Dom people live in an agricultural society, which has a tribal, patrilocal and patrilineal organization. There is only small dialectal differentiation among the clans. The predominant religion is Christianity.
Language Contact Situation
There are three different languages spoken by Dom speakers alongside Dom: Tok Pisin, Kuman and English. Tok Pisin serves as the Papuan lingua franca. Kuman, which is a closely related eastern Chimbu language of high social and cultural prestige, functions as the prestige language used in ceremonies and official situations. School lessons are mostly held in English.[4]
Grammar
Phonology
Vowels
i u
- e o
- a a:
- e o
Minimal pairs
| e~i | ˦de 'faeces'~˦di 'axe' |
| o~u | ˦kol 'part~˦kul 'grass' |
| e~o~a | ˥˩pel 'to dig'~˥˩pol 'to pull out'~˥˩pal 'to skin' |
| a~a: | ˥˩bna 'brother'~˥˩bna: 'frame over the fireplace' |
Allophones
Vowel lengthening in a contour pitched syllable has allophonic character.
| Vowels | default realisation | contour pitched syllable | word final | special context |
| e | [e]~[ɛ] | [e:] | [ə],Ø | [o] in [+labial](C)_#
[i]|#C_# |
| i | [i] | [i:] | [i] | [i] |
| o | [o]~[ɔ] | [o:]~[oɔ] | [o] | [o] |
| u | [u] | [u:] | [u] | [u] |
| a | [a] | [a:] | [a] | [a] |
Vowel Sequences
iu,io,ia uo
- eu,ei,ea o
- au,ai,ae a:
- eu,ei,ea o
Consonants
Source:[7]
The Dom consonant system consists of 13 indigenous and 3 loan consonants.
| bilabial | alveolar | alveopalatal | velar | |
| [-voice][+stop] | p | t | k | |
| [+prenas][+voice][+stop] | b | d | g | |
| [+nas] | m | n | ||
| [-voice][+affr] | (c) | |||
| [+prenas][+voice][+affr] | (j) | |||
| [+fric] | s | |||
| [+lat] | l | (ʟ) | ||
| [+flap] | r | |||
| [+approx] | w | y |
The phonemes /c/[ts], /j/[ndʒ]and /ʟ/[ʟ] are loan phonemes and unstable in use.
Minimal pairs
˩˥su 'two' ~ ˩˥tu 'thick'
- ~ ˩˥du 'squeeze'
- ~ ˩˥nu 'aim at'
- ~ ˩˥ku 'hold in the mouth'
- ~ ˩˥gu 'shave'
- ~ ˩˥pu 'blow'
- ~ ˩˥mu 'his/her back'
- ~ ˩˥yu 'harvest taro'
Allophones
| /p/ | /t/ | /k/ | /b/ | /<d/ | /g/ | /m/ | /n/ | (/c/) | (/j/) | /s/ | /l/ | /(ʟ)/ | /r/ | /w/ | /y/ | |
| default realization | [p] | [t] | [k] | [nb] | [nd] | [ŋg] | [m] | [n] | ([tʃ]) | ([ndʒ]) | [s] | [l] | ([ʟ]) | [ɾ] | [w] | [j] |
| free alternation | ([d(i)]) | [ts],[tʃ] | ([k][ʟ̥][k͡ʟ̥]) | [r],[n],[l] | ||||||||||||
| #_ | [pp] | [t],[tt] | [kk] | [b],[bb] | [d],[dd] | [g],[gg] | [m] | [n] | [tʃ] | [j],[jj] | [s],[ʃ] | Ø | Ø | ([ɾ]) | Ø | Ø |
| V_V | [β] | ([t]) | [ɣ] | [ŋ],[ŋg] | [s],[ʃ] | ([l]) | ||||||||||
| other contexts | [ɖ] | [ɳ] | [ʃ] | [ʟ] | [t^]/[d^] | Ø |
Variants can be determined by the factors of dialect or age. Certain exceptions show archaic variants, for example the existence of intervocal [b] in the word ˥˩iba 'but' or the otherwise non-existent sequence [lk], which is used only by elderly people or in official situations. Brackets "()" show, that the allophone is used only in loanwords.
Tones
Source:[8]
Dom is a tonal language. Each word carries one of three tones as shown in the examples below:
- high:
- ka˥ 'word'
- mu˥kal˥ 'a kind of bamboo'
- no˥ma˥ne˥ 'to think'
- falling:
- ŋgal˥˩ 'string back'
- jo˥pa˩ ' yopa tree', jo˥pal˥˩ 'people'
- a˥ra˥wa˩ 'pumpkin'
- rising:
- kal˩˥ 'thing'
- a˩pal˧ 'woman'
- au˩pa˩le˧ 'sister.3Sg.POSS'
Minimal pairs
wam˥˩ (personal name) ~ wam˩ 'to hitch.3SG' ~ wam˥ 'son3SG.POSS'
Non-phonemic Elements
- [ɨ] is optionally inserted between consonants:
- ˥˩komna 'vegetable' kom˥ na˩ or kom˥ ɨ na˩
Morphology
Dom is a suffixing language. Morpheme boundaries between person-number and mood morphemes can be combined.
Syntax
Source:[9]
Phrase Structure
Noun Phrase
| attributive noun phrases
possessor marker relative clause noun classifier |
head noun | numerals
adjektives appositions |
demonstratives |
- elements preceding the head:
- attributive NP
yal
man
i
DEM
kal
thing
'the thing of the man'
- possessive marker
na
you
bola-n
pig-2SG.POSS
'your pig'
- relative clause
o
hand.3SG.POSS
pal
by
bin-gwa
produce-3SG.SRD
kal
thing
'thing produced by hand' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- noun classifier
bola
pig
sipsip
sheep
'sheep'
- elements following the head:
- numerals
yal
man
su
two
'two men'
- adjectives
gal
child
bl
big
'big child'
- appositions
ge
girl
apal
woman
gal
child
'girl, female child'
- demonstratives
yal
man
i
DEM
'this man'
If a noun phrase includes a demonstrative element, it has always the last position of the phrase:
yal
man
su
two
i
DEM
'the two men'
Adjective Phrase
| head adjective | intensifier |
er
tree
wai
good
won
truly
ta
a
'a very good tree'
Postpositional Phrase
| noun | head postposition |
m-na
mother-1SG.POSS
bol
with
'with my mother'
Verbal Phrase
| subject
(object) |
object
(subject) |
adverbials
conditional adverbial clauses final adverbial clauses |
head verb | AUX
mutual knowledge marker enclitics |
demonstratives |
- elements preceding the head verb:
- subject:
yal
man
su
two
al-ipke
stand up-2/3DL.IND
'two men stand up' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- subject-object:
na
1.EXCL
keepa
sweet.potato
ne-ke
eat-1SG.IND
'I eat a sweet potato'
- adverbial
orpl-d
quickly
u-o
come-2SG.IMP
'come quickly'
- final clause
er
to
ila
inside
na-l
go-1SG.FUT
d
Q
u-ke
come-1SG.IND
'I came to go inside'
- elements following the head verb:
- auxiliars:
bl-n
head-2SG.POSS
de
burn.INF
bla
burst
d-na-wdae
(say)-FUT-3SG.MUT
'Your head will be burnt and explode (as a matter of course)' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- mutual knowledge marker
mol-me
stay-1SG.IND
=krae
=MUT
'he/she stay as we know' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- demonstratives
yo-gwa
be-3SG.IND
ime
down.there
'There it is down over there'
There are no zero-place predicates in Dom. As a subject ˩˥kamn 'world' is used:
˩˥kamn
rain
˥˩su-gwe
hit-3Sg.IND
'It rains'
Constituent Order
Source:[10]
The predominant constituent order is ‘’’S-O-V’’’. Only the predicate has to be expressed overtly. An exception are absolute-topic type clauses, which consist only of one noun phrase.[11]
Characteristics of the constituent order
- Three Place Predicate Order[12]
In the case of a three place predicate the recipient noun always follows the gift noun:
˥Ella
tribe.name
Noun
˩˥Naur
tribe.name
adjunct
˥˩moni
money
Gift
˥na
1.EXCL
Recipient
˥˩te-na-m=˥˩ua
give-FUT-3SG=ENC.WA
V
'The Naur subtribe of the Ella tribe shall give me money.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
The only position which can be optionally filled is the sentence topic. Possible constituents can be the subject of an equational sentence (default), an extrasentential or a topicalized constituent:
- subject in an equational sentence (default)
| subject | object | verb |
˩˥apal
woman
˩˥su
two
˥˩i
DEM
˥na
1.EXCL
˥˩ep-na
wife
'These two women are my wives'
- extrasentential:
| extrasentential | subject | verb |
˩˥apal
woman
˩˥su
two
˥˩i
DEM
˥na
1.EXCL
˥˩ep-na
wife-1SG.POSS
˩˥mo-ip-ke
stay-2/3DL-IND
'As for these two women, they are my wives' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- topicalized constituent:
| object (topicalzied) | subject | verb |
˩˥apal
woman
˩˥su
two
˥˩i
DEM
˥na
1.EXCL
˥i
take.INF
˩˥war-ke
move.around-1SG.IND
'As for these two women, I have them as spouses'
Marking of Syntactical Relations
Person and Number
Source:[13]
Dom has three different person-number-systems: for pronouns, possessive suffixes on nouns and cross reference markers on verbs.
| 1 | 2 | |
|---|---|---|
| general (exc) | ˥na | ˥en |
| non-singular (exc) | ˥no | |
| non-singular(inc) | ˩˥none | |
| non-singular | ˥ne |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| singular | -na | -n | -m |
| non-singular | -ne | ||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| singular | -i~-Ø | -n | -m |
| dual | -pl | -ipl | |
| plural(three or more) | -pn | -im | |
The marking of dual and plural is not obligatory in all cases but depends on the sem ±human ±animate:
| +human | -human | |
|---|---|---|
| +animate | almost obligatory | optional/uncommon |
| -animate | Ø | scarcely used |
Tense
Source:[14]
Dom has an unmarked non-future tense and a marked future tense.
Non-Future
Non-future tense is used, if
- the event follows immediately
- the event is in the past
˥ere
to
˥˩e-ke
go-1Sg.IND
'I go/I went'
Future tense
Future tense is marked by the suffix -na (-na~-ra~-a)[15] and is used, if
- the event is part of the speaker's plan for the next day
- the event is the speaker's intention and it is possible for the speaker to go through with it
- the event describes a potentiality or a permanent quality
˥ere
to
˥˩na-ke
go.FUT-1SG.IND
'I will go'
'I think I will go'
'I might go’
'I am the kind of person, who goes'
Negation
A predicate is negated by the suffix -kl. The preceding negation particle ˥ta is optional.
˥na
1.EXCL
˥˩kurl
fear
˥ta
NEG
˥go
die
+˩˥k
NEG
-pge
1PL.IND
'We (exc.) did not fear'
Lexic
Noun Classifiers
Source:[17]
Noun classifiers are lexical items preceding a noun with a more specified meaning. Phonetically and syntactically they form one unit with the following noun and thus differ from an apposition, which consists of two or more phonetic constituents. Noun classifiers can have the following functions:
- no obvious lexical specification:
˥˩nl
water
˥nul
river
'river'
- specifying a polysemoous word:
˥ere
tree
˥˩aml
peanut/pandanus
'pandanus which bears the nut-like fruit'
˥kul
grass
˥˩aml
peanut/pandanus
'peanut'
- explaining loanwords:
˥˩nl
water
˥˩bia
alcohol
'Alkohol'
˥˩bola
pig
˥˩sipsip
sheep
'sheep'
Repetition
A noun can be repeated to express the following relations:[18]
- reciprocity
˥˩birua
enemy
˥˩birua
enemy
˩˥me-ipka
stay-2/3.SRD
'The two are enemies for each other' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
- plurality
˥˩kal
thing
˥˩kal
thing
'several things'
Loanwords
Tok Pisin is the main source for lexical borrowing, borrowings from English are often made indirectly via Tok Pisin. Borrowed lexemes mostly refer to new cultural objects and concepts as well as proper names and high numbers.,[19] which did not exist in the Dom language before:
- kar ’car’
- skul 'school, to study'
- akn 'Mount Hagen'
- andret 'hundred'
But recently some already existing Dom words have begun to be replaced by Tok Pisin lexical items:
- wanpla for dom tenanta 'one'
- blat for dom miam 'blood'
- stori for dom kapore-el- 'to tell a story'
The Demonstrative System
Source:[20]
Dom has a spatial referencing demonstrative system, i.e. there are certain demonstrative lexemes bearing information about the spatial relation of the referred object to the speaker alongside neutral demonstratives. A Dom speaker also uses different lexemes for visible and invisible objects. In the case of visible objects, the speaker locates it on a horizontal and vertical axis as to whether it is proximal, medium or distal from the speaker and on the same level, uphill or downhill.
Demonstratives with spatial alignment:[21]
| proximal | medium | distal | |
|---|---|---|---|
| without vertical alignment | ˥ya | ˥˩sipi | |
| level | ˥yale | ˥˩ile | ˩˥ile |
| uphill | ˥yape | ˥˩ipe | ˩˥ipe |
| downhill | ˥yame | ˥˩ime | ˩˥ime |
For invisible objects one must be aware of the cause for its invisibility. If it is invisible because the object is behind the speaker, a proximal demonstrative is used. Objects obscured behind an obstacle are referred to with distal demonstratives and invisible objects by their nature with downhill demonstratives. Invisible objects, that are very far away, are referred to with the downhill distal demonstrative ˩˥ime.
References
- ↑ Dom at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 1; 6; 8
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 1f; 3
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 2
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 1
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 9
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 13
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 24-42
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 111-164
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 111-114
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 131
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 111
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 124f
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 128f
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 84
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 160f
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 115 f
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 117
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 2
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 225
- ↑ Tida Syuntarô (2006): A Grammar of the Dom Language. A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea. Page 125