James L. Buckley
Buckley in the 1970s
Senior Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
In office
August 31, 1996 – August 18, 2023
Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
In office
December 17, 1985 – August 31, 1996
Appointed byRonald Reagan
Preceded byEdward Allen Tamm
Succeeded byJohn Roberts
Counselor of the Department of State
In office
September 9, 1982 – September 26, 1982
PresidentRonald Reagan
Preceded byRobert McFarlane
Succeeded byEd Derwinski
Undersecretary of State for International Security Affairs
In office
February 28, 1981 – August 20, 1982
PresidentRonald Reagan
Preceded byMatthew Nimetz
Succeeded byWilliam Schneider Jr.
United States Senator
from New York
In office
January 3, 1971 – January 3, 1977
Preceded byCharles Goodell
Succeeded byDaniel Patrick Moynihan
Personal details
Born
James Lane Buckley

(1923-03-09)March 9, 1923
New York City, New York, U.S.
DiedAugust 18, 2023(2023-08-18) (aged 100)
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Political party
Spouse
Ann Cooley
​
​
(m. 1953; died 2011)​
Children6
Parent
Relatives
EducationYale University (BA, LLB)
Military service
Branch/serviceUnited States Navy
Years of service1942–1946
RankLieutenant (junior grade)
Battles/warsWorld War II

James Lane Buckley (March 9, 1923 – August 18, 2023) was an American politician and judge who served in the United States Senate as a member of the Conservative Party of New York State in the Republican caucus from 1971 to 1977 and additionally held multiple positions within the Reagan administration. He was also the Republican nominee in the 1980 Connecticut Senate race, but he was defeated by Democrat Chris Dodd.

In 1970, Buckley was elected to the U.S. Senate as the nominee of the Conservative Party of New York; he won the race with 39% of the vote[1] and served from 1971 until 1977. During the first Reagan administration, Buckley served as Undersecretary of State for International Security Affairs. He was also President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty from 1982 to 1985.

Buckley was nominated by President Ronald Reagan to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on October 16, 1985. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on December 17, 1985, and he received his commission on December 17, 1985. Buckley assumed senior status on August 31, 1996.[2] He was one of the few people in modern times to have served in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the American federal government.

Early life, education, and early career

James Lane Buckley was born on March 9, 1923, in Manhattan, New York City, to Aloise Steiner and William Frank Buckley Sr., the fourth of ten children to the couple.[3][4][5] Because their home language was Spanish, Buckley and siblings learned Spanish before they learned English.[6] He was the older brother of the late conservative writer William F. Buckley Jr. and the uncle of Christopher Taylor Buckley. He was also the uncle of Brent Bozell III and political consultant William F. B. O'Reilly. His mother, from New Orleans, was of Swiss-German, German, and Irish descent, while his paternal grandparents, from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, were of Irish ancestry.[7]

Buckley attended Millbrook School, and in 1943 earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Yale University,[8] where he was a member of Skull and Bones.[9][10][11] He enlisted in the United States Navy in 1942, and during World War II he participated in the battles of Leyte, Lingayen Gulf, and Okinawa. Buckley was discharged with the rank of Lieutenant (junior grade)[4] in 1946. After receiving his Bachelor of Laws from Yale Law School in 1949, he was admitted to the bar of Connecticut in 1950 and practiced law until 1953, when he joined The Catawba Corporation as vice president and director.[12] In 1965, he managed his brother's campaign for Mayor of New York.[5] Meanwhile, in May 1953, he married Ann Frances Cooley, with whom he had six children before her death on December 30, 2011.[4][13]

Career

With President Richard Nixon on November 6, 1970

United States Senate

Elections

1968

In 1968, Buckley ran for the senatorial nomination of the Conservative Party of New York State, after his brother William F. Buckley Jr. had served as the party's mayoral nominee in the 1965 New York City mayoral election. Buckley won the party's nomination on April 2, 1968, with the unanimous support of all forty state committeemen.[14] Buckley placed third in the general election behind Republican nominee Jacob Javits and Democratic nominee Paul O'Dwyer after receiving 1,139,402 votes (17.31%).[15]

1970

On March 16, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy announced that he would seek the presidential nomination of the Democratic Party for the 1968 presidential election.[16] After winning four primaries Kennedy was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan in Los Angeles, California, on June 6.[17]

Kennedy's death left a vacancy in the United States Senate that would be filled through an appointment by Governor Nelson Rockefeller. John W. Gardner, John Lindsay, Burke Marshall, C. Douglas Dillon, Charles Goodell, Ogden Reid, and Whitney Young were all mentioned as possible candidates for the appointment.[18] On August 11, a spokesman for Rockefeller stated that the main choices for the appointment were Gardner, Goodell, and Reid.[19] On September 10, Rockefeller appointed Goodell, a member of the House of Representatives from the 38th congressional district, to fill the vacancy.[20]

On April 6, 1970, Buckley announced that he would seek the Conservative Party's senatorial nomination again.[21] The Conservative State Committee convened inside Hotel McAlpin in Manhattan, New York City, on April 7, to select the party's nominees in the general election. Kevin P. McGovern attempted to force a primary campaign between himself and Buckley but failed to receive the 25% of delegate votes necessary for a primary. Buckley received nearly ninety percent of the delegate votes and the remainder was split between McGovern and abstaining delegates.[22][23]

On June 20, F. Clifton White, Buckley's campaign manager, announced that Buckley's campaign would circulate petitions in an attempt to gain another ballot line named the Independent Alliance Party.[24] Enough valid signatures were collected to gain the additional ballot line, but New York Secretary of State John P. Lomenzo ruled that the Independent Alliance's emblem, an outline of New York with Buckley's name inside, was illegal as New York's election law limited the number of times that a candidate's name could appear on a ballot line to one.[25] Lomenzo later allowed the party onto the ballot after the emblem was changed to a shield with the letter "I" inside.[26]

In the general election Buckley defeated Goodell, and Richard Ottinger.[27] Although the Independent Alliance Party received over 100,000 votes in the general election, more than the 50,000 votes required to become an official party and automatic ballot access, it did not become an official party as its only candidate was Buckley, who ran in the Senate election and not in the gubernatorial election where the 50,000 votes were required to come from.[28]

1976

In 1971, Buckley spoke to the Republican National Finance committee about running for reelection in the 1976 elections with the Republican nomination.[29] Peter A. Peyser challenged him in the Republican primary, but Buckley defeated him. Buckley gained Rockefeller's support by agreeing to not support Ronald Reagan's campaign against Gerald Ford in the Republican presidential primaries.[30] Buckley lost the general election to Democratic nominee Daniel Patrick Moynihan by a margin of 54% to 45%.[31]

Tenure

During his tenure in the United States Senate Buckley's political affiliation was referred to as Conservative-Republican of New York (C-R-N.Y).[32] The Republican caucus in the Senate voted 36 to 3 in favor of admitting Buckley into their caucus, with Senators Jacob Javits, John Sherman Cooper, and William B. Saxbe all opposing Buckley's admittance to the caucus.[33][34]

In 1971, Buckley was appointed to the air and water pollution, roads, and economic development sub-committees within the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works.[35] Buckley supported Richard Nixon during the 1972 presidential election and called for the Conservative Party, which had not supported Nixon during the 1968 presidential election, to support Nixon in the current election cycle.[36]

In 1974, Buckley proposed a Human Life Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. If passed, the Amendment would have defined the term "person" in the Fourteenth Amendment to include the embryo.[37] His enacted legislation includes the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) that governs use of student records and the Protection of Pupils' Rights Act (PPRA) which requires parent notification, right to review, and consent for administration of student surveys to minors if the survey collects information on any of eight specified topics.[38]

In the spring of 1974, with the Watergate scandal continuing to grow in magnitude and seriousness, Buckley surprised and, in some cases, angered some of his allies among Republicans when he called upon the increasingly-embattled Richard M. Nixon to voluntarily resign the presidency.[39] Buckley said that in doing so, he was making no judgment as to Nixon's technical legal guilt or innocence of the accusations made against him and in fact denounced those "in and out of the media who have been exploiting the Watergate affair so recklessly" in what he called an effort "to subvert the decisive mandate of the 1972 election." However, he said that the burgeoning scandal might result in an impeachment process that would tear the country even further apart and so he declared: "There is one way and one way only by which the crisis can be resolved, and the country pulled out of the Watergate swamp. I propose an extraordinary act of statesmanship and courage—an act at once noble and heartbreaking; at once serving the greater interests of the nation, the institution of the Presidency, and the stated goals for which he so successfully campaigned"—Nixon's resignation.[40] Buckley was the first major conservative figure to call for resignation. Nixon did not resign at that time but eventually did lose the support of key Republican figures, including Senator Barry Goldwater.[41] Nixon ultimately resigned on August 9, 1974.[42]

Buckley was the lead petitioner in a landmark Supreme Court case, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), which "shaped modern campaign-finance law".[43]

1976 Republican National Convention

During the 1976 Republican National Convention, then-Senator Jesse Helms encouraged a "Draft Buckley" movement in an effort to stop the nomination of Ronald Reagan for President. (Reagan had announced that Pennsylvania Senator Richard Schweiker would be his running mate; Helms objected to this decision, believing Schweiker to be too liberal.) The "Draft Buckley" movement was rendered moot when President Gerald Ford narrowly won the party's nomination on the first ballot.[44][45]

Post-Senate career

With President Ronald Reagan on November 3, 1982

After his loss in the 1976 election, Buckley worked for Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, becoming a member of the executive committee and of its board of directors and eventually advancing to the position of corporate director.[46]

After his 1980 loss in Connecticut, Buckley served in the Reagan administration, first as an undersecretary of State for security assistance, managing military aid to strategically located countries, and then as President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in Munich from 1982 to 1985.[47][48][49]

Federal judicial service

On October 16, 1985, Buckley was nominated by President Ronald Reagan to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The seat had previously been held by Judge Edward Allen Tamm. Buckley was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 17, 1985, and received his commission on December 17, 1985. He assumed senior status on August 31, 1996.[12]

Later life and death

During the 2016 presidential election Buckley was critical of Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton and Republican nominee Donald Trump. He stated that his brother William and Reagan would have been shocked by Trump's actions. He suggested that he mostly agreed with Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson.[50]

Buckley became the oldest living former senator following the deaths of Jocelyn Burdick and Fritz Hollings in 2019.[51] Buckley turned 100 on March 9, 2023,[52] and died at Sibley Memorial Hospital in Washington, D.C., on August 18, due to injuries suffered in a fall.[3][53]

Political positions

Buckley introduced and led the passage of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, but later in 2010 he publicly supported amendment of the legislation due to college athletic departments using the legislation to hide sexual abuse allegations.[54] He voted against a minimum wage increase in 1974. Buckley was one of eight senators to vote against the Equal Rights Amendment.[55]

Electoral history

1970 Conservative Party United States Senate ballot[22]
Party Candidate Votes % ±%
Conservative James L. Buckley 379.1 89.14%
Conservative Kevin P. McGovern 35.8 8.42%
Conservative Abstention 10.4 2.45%
Total votes 425.3 100.00%
1970 New York United States Senate election[27]
Party Candidate Votes % ±%
Conservative James L. Buckley 2,179,640 36.91% +34.33%
Independent Alliance James L. Buckley 108,550 1.84% +1.84%
Total James L. Buckley 2,288,190 38.75% +36.17%
Democratic Richard Ottinger 2,171,232 36.77% -18.74%
Republican Charles Goodell (incumbent) 1,178,679 19.96% -17.74%
Liberal Charles Goodell (incumbent) 225,793 3.82% -0.34%
Total Charles Goodell (incumbent) 1,434,472 24.29% -13.41%
Communist Arnold Johnson 4,097 0.07% +0.07%
Socialist Workers Kipp Dawson 3,549 0.06% +0.01%
Socialist Labor John Emanuel 3,204 0.05% -0.04%
Total votes 5,904,744 100.00%
1976 U.S. Senate election in New York[31]
Party Candidate Votes % ±%
Democratic Pat Moynihan 3,238,511 51.26%
Liberal Pat Moynihan 184,083 2.91%
Total Pat Moynihan 3,422,594 54.17%
Republican James L. Buckley (incumbent) 2,525,139 39.96%
Conservative James L. Buckley (incumbent) 311,494 4.93%
Total James L. Buckley (incumbent) 2,836,633 44.89% N/A
Communist Herbert Aptheker 25,141 0.40% Increase0.37
Socialist Workers Marcia Gallo 16,350 0.26% Increase0.20
Libertarian Martin E. Nixon 10,943 0.17% Increase0.17
U.S. Labor Elijah C. Boyd 6,716 0.11% Increase0.11
Total votes 6,318,377 100.00%
Democratic gain from Republican
Connecticut United States Senate election, 1980[56]
Party Candidate Votes %
Democratic Chris Dodd 763,969 56.34%
Republican James Buckley 581,884 42.91%
Libertarian Jerry Brennan 5,336 0.39%
Concerned Citizens Andrew J. Zemel 4,772 0.35%
Write-in All others 114 0.01%
Total votes 1,356,075 100.00%
Democratic hold

Publications

  • If Men Were Angels: A View from the Senate (1975)[57]
  • Gleanings from an Unplanned Life (2006)[58]
  • Freedom at Risk: Reflections on Politics, Liberty, and the State (2010)[59]
  • Saving Congress from Itself: Emancipating the States & Empowering Their People (2014)[60]

Notes

  1. ↑ Though elected to the U.S. Senate as a member of the Conservative Party, Buckley caucused with Senate Republicans during his term.

References

  1. ↑ Taranto, James (August 1, 2014). "Nine Decades at the Barricades". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on November 26, 2021. Retrieved February 25, 2019 – via wsj.com.
  2. ↑ James L. Buckley at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
  3. 1 2 McFadden, Robert D. (August 18, 2023). "James L. Buckley, Conservative Senator in Liberal New York, Dies at 100". The New York Times. Retrieved August 18, 2023.
  4. 1 2 3 "Tenacious Senator-Elect". The New York Times. November 5, 1970. Archived from the original on October 12, 2020.
  5. 1 2 "Hon. James L. Buckley: Oral History Text & Documentation". Historical Society of the District of Columbia Circuit. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 22, 2021.
  6. ↑ (PDF) https://dcchs.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/James-L.-Buckley-Complete-Oral-History-compressed.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. ↑ "The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography: Being the History of the United States as Illustrated in the Lives of the Founders, Builders, and Defenders of the Republic, and of the Men and Women who are Doing the Work and Moulding the Thought of the Present Time". University Microfilms. January 1, 1967 – via Google Books.
  8. ↑ McFadden, Robert D. (November 5, 1970). "Tenacious Senator-Elect". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 11, 2021. Retrieved April 22, 2021.
  9. ↑ Alexandra Robbins, Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power, Little, Brown and Company, 2002, page 168, 174
  10. ↑ "People in the News", Associated Press, May 27, 1983
  11. ↑ Bob Dart, "Skull and bones a secret shared by Bush, Kerry", The Gazette, March 7, 2004
  12. 1 2 "Buckley, James Lane – Federal Judicial Center". www.fjc.gov. Archived from the original on August 20, 2017. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
  13. ↑ "Sharon-Ann Buckley". The Washington Post. January 3, 2012. Archived from the original on October 12, 2020.
  14. ↑ "James Buckley Nominated By Conservative Party as U.S. Senate Candidate". The Glens Falls Times. April 3, 1968. p. 15. Archived from the original on October 12, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  15. ↑ "1968 Senatorial election results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020.
  16. ↑ "Bobby Tosses Hat in Ring Amid Boos, Cheers". Fort Collins Coloradoan. March 17, 1968. p. 13. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  17. ↑ "THE LAST CAMPAIGN". May 18, 2008. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020.
  18. ↑ "Ex-HEW Chief RFK Successor". The Tennessean. June 12, 1968. p. 26. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  19. ↑ "3 Are Leading Contenders For NY Senate Seat". The Fresno Bee The Republican. August 11, 1968. p. 44. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  20. ↑ "Pick Goodell To Succeed Slain RFK". The Sheboygan Press. September 10, 1968. p. 1. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  21. ↑ "James Buckley May Oppose Sen. Goodell". Daily News. April 7, 1970. p. 4. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  22. 1 2 "Adams, James Buckley On Conservative Slate". The Times Record. April 8, 1970. p. 12. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  23. ↑ "Conservatives Set To Rename Buckley". Daily News. April 7, 1970. p. 106. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  24. ↑ "Buck Seeks Second Line". Daily News. June 21, 1970. p. 8. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  25. ↑ "One Party Off; One On, Maybe". The Ithaca Journal. September 11, 1970. p. 8. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  26. ↑ "Independent Alliance Back on NY's Ballot". Star-Gazette. September 22, 1970. p. 18. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  27. 1 2 "Clerk of the House of Representatives 1970 Election Results Page 22" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 7, 2014.
  28. ↑ "Buckley's Machine Securing His Position". Star-Gazette. December 13, 1970. p. 29. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  29. ↑ "Buckley Looking to '76 And Hopes for a Repeat". The Kingston Daily Freeman. January 15, 1971. p. 3. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  30. ↑ "Peter Peyser, Legislator Who Defied the G.O.P., Dies at 93". The New York Times. October 9, 2014. Archived from the original on November 12, 2022.
  31. 1 2 Moore, Preimesberger & Tarr 2001, pp. 1290.
  32. ↑ "Javits to Break Silence On Buckley Seating Issue". Democrat and Chronicle. January 19, 1971. p. 7. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  33. ↑ "Caucus Gives Buckley Senate GOP Status". Press and Sun-Bulletin. January 21, 1971. p. 2. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  34. ↑ "The 92nd: Buckley's In, Ted's Out". Democrat and Chronicle. January 22, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  35. ↑ "Buckley Gets Assignments". The Times Record. February 4, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  36. ↑ "Sen. Buckley Boosts President". Daily News. June 8, 1972. p. 214. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  37. ↑ "Latrobe Bulletin 25 Jan 1974, page 15". Newspapers.com. January 25, 1974. Retrieved August 18, 2023.
  38. ↑ "James L. Buckley". www.congress.gov. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
  39. ↑ "Why Richard Nixon Should Resign the Presidency". The National Review. 1974.
  40. ↑ "The Resignation Question". The New York Times. March 24, 1974. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
  41. ↑ Goldberg, Robert Alan (1995), Barry Goldwater, the standard scholarly biography, page 282
  42. ↑ "August 9th in History: The Resignation of Richard Nixon". August 9, 2016. Archived from the original on June 11, 2019. Retrieved August 26, 2019.
  43. ↑ Russello, Gerald. "Mr. Buckley Goes to Washington" Archived June 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The American Conservative, April 11, 2011, quoted in review of Freedom at Risk, Retrieved June 17, 2019
  44. ↑ World Almanac and Book of Facts 1977
  45. ↑ "Vanderbilt Television News Archive". Tvnews.vanderbilt.edu. August 11, 1976. Archived from the original on September 30, 2011. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
  46. ↑ "People and Business; Ex-Senator Buckley Joins Firm Of Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette". The New York Times. May 10, 1977. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
  47. ↑ "James Buckley on 2016: 'I am an unhappy man': Column". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
  48. ↑ "Hon. James L. Buckley". fedsoc.org. October 25, 2021. Archived from the original on February 8, 2022. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
  49. ↑ Reinsch, Richard (March 8, 2023). "The 'Sainted Junior Senator From New York' Turns 100". The Daily Signal. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  50. ↑ "James Buckley on 2016: 'I am an unhappy man': Column". USA Today. September 8, 2016. Archived from the original on May 12, 2022.
  51. ↑ "With Ernest Hollings's Death, New York's James Buckley Now Oldest Ex-Senator". The Intelligencer. April 8, 2019. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020.
  52. ↑ "The 'Sainted Junior Senator From New York' Turns 100". The Daily Signal. March 9, 2023. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  53. ↑ Butler, Jack (August 18, 2023). "James L. Buckley, R.I.P." National Review. Retrieved August 18, 2023.
  54. ↑ "Yale Law School Is Deleting Its Admissions Records, and There's Nothing Students Can Do About It". The New Republic. March 15, 2015. Archived from the original on May 12, 2022.
  55. ↑ "Obscure Buckley Vaults Into Political Maelstrom". The New York Times. April 18, 1974. Archived from the original on November 12, 2022.
  56. ↑ "Our Campaigns – CT US Senate Race – Nov 04, 1980". Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  57. ↑ Wills, Garry (March 4, 1976). "Cato's Gang". Archived from the original on February 25, 2019. Retrieved February 25, 2019 – via www.nybooks.com. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  58. ↑ "Dinner with the Buckleys". National Review. June 30, 2010. Archived from the original on August 2, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
  59. ↑ "The Buckley Stops Here". National Review. December 14, 2010. Archived from the original on August 2, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
  60. ↑ Andrew Kloster (March 20, 2015). "Review: Saving Congress from Itself: Emancipating the States & Empowering Their People, by James L. Buckley". Human Events. Archived from the original on May 2, 2019. Retrieved May 2, 2019.

Works cited

Further reading

  • Buckley, James Lane (1975). If Men Were Angels: A View From the Senate. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-11589-7.
  • Buckley, James Lane (2006). Gleanings from an Unplanned Life: An Annotated Oral History. Wilmington: Intercollegiate Studies institute. ISBN 978-1-933859-11-8.
  • Buckley, James Lane (2010). Freedom at Risk: Reflections on Politics, Liberty, and the State. New York: Encounter Books. ISBN 1-59403-478-8.
  • Buckley, James Lane (2014). Saving Congress from Itself: Emancipating the States and Empowering Their People. New York: Encounter Books.
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