Kalašma or Kalasma (occasionally Kalašpa[1][2]) was a late Bronze Age polity in Northern Anatolia on the border of the Hittite Empire.

Location

The location of Kalašma is uncertain; scholars infer it from references in contemporary documents to nearby places, many of whose locations are also uncertain. According to Carlo Corti, Kalašma lay west of Pala.[3] Stefano de Martino places it south of Arawanna and north of Lukka.[4] Harranassi may have been a city in Kalašma.[5]

Following the view expressed in 1977 by Massimo Forlanini,[6] the University of Würzburg says Kalašma was likely in northwest Anatolia, in what is now the Turkish province of Bolu,[7] In 1960, John Garstang and Oliver Gurney had put it in southeast Anatolia, between Marash and the Euphrates,[8] whereas Albrecht Goetze favoured southwest Anatolia.[9] In 1958 Friedrich Cornelius suggested Greek Cerasus (now Turkish Giresun).[10]

While Bedřich Hrozný in 1935 identified Kalašma with Kalašmitta[11] (one of the towns which worshipped Ala[12]) later sources state they were distinct places.[13]

History

Forlanini says that Kalašma was not a tribal name but a city-state, the eponymous city having been fortified by the Hittite king Hantili I (died c. 1560 BCE).[14] Hantili failed to reinstate Kalašma's local weather god, and on returning to Ḫattuša, the Hittite capital, he had to perform expiatory rituals to the Sun goddess of the Earth.[15]

Arnuwanda I (ruled 1380s BCE) installed oathbound military commanders in regions including Kalašma.[16] Civil administration was by a council of elders.[17] In the reign of Arnuwanda's son Tudhaliya II, troops from Kalašma and elsewhere rebelled and fled through Išuwa to an unnamed enemy country; Tudhaliya's son Suppiluliuma I subdued the rebel regions.[18] There were several revolts in the reign of Suppiluliuma's son Muršili II (ended 1295 BCE). One triggered a punitive raid by Hittite general Nuwanzas.[8][19] Muršili replaced the elders with a single administrator named Aparru, who rebelled, seized royal power, and invaded neighbouring Sappa.[20][21][16][22] Aparru was soon defeated but Kalašma was in civil war until pacified the next year by Hutupiyanza, governor of Pala.[20][23]

Kalašmans were later to be found further east, at Pahhuwa on the upper Euphrates, possibly having been deported there by Muršili, or as mercenary soldiers.[24] Kalašmans fought alongside the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh against the Egyptian Empire in 1274 BCE.[17]

Kalašma is one of the places mentioned in a Luwian hieroglyphic tablet from the reign of Arnuwanda III (ended c. 1210 BDE) as conquered by Mukšuš.[25]

Language

In 2023 a tablet written in "the language of the land of Kalašma" was discovered in the Bogazköy Archive excavated at Ḫattuša.[7] It is in the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European languages, probably the Luwic sub-branch.[7] In 1958 Einar von Schuler had noted that a Hittite-language oath taken by officials from Kalašma represented a different dialect of Hittite from the oath of other regions' officials.[26]

Sources

  • Carnevale, Antonio (2018). La frontiera orientale dell'impero ittita (PDF) (Doctorate) (in Italian). Sapienza University of Rome. hdl:11573/1147202. CORE 188823629.
  • Forlanini, Massimo (2010). "Deportati e mercenari dall'Anatolia occidentale all'alto Eufrate sotto l'impero hittita". Orientalia (in Italian). 79 (2): 152–163. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43077905.
  • Garstang, John; Gurney, O.C. (1960). The geography of the Hittite Empire. Occasional Publications. Vol. 5. London: British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara via Internet Archive.
  • Weeden, Mark; Ullmann, Lee Z., eds. (20 May 2022) [2017]. Hittite Landscape and Geography. Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 1: The Near and Middle East. Vol. 121. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34939-1.

References

  1. Weeden and Ullmann 2022 p. 232; Garstang 1960 p. 41
  2. Kryszeń, Adam (28 April 2023). "Kalašma". Hittite Toponyms (HiTop). University of Würzburg. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  3. Weeden and Ullmann 2022 p. 234
  4. Weeden and Ullmann 2022 p. 261
  5. Miller, Jared L. (2013). Giorgieri, Mauro (ed.). Royal Hittite Instructions and Related Administrative Texts. Writings from the Ancient World. Vol. 31. Atlanta (Ga.): Society of Biblical Literature. p. 368 n. 264. ISBN 978-1-58983-657-0.
  6. Forlanini, Massimo (1977). "L'Anatolia nordoccidentale nell'impero eteo". Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici (in Italian). Rome: Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri (18): 208. ISSN 1126-6651 via academia.edu.
  7. 1 2 3 "New Indo-European Language Discovered". University of Würzburg. 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  8. 1 2 Garstang 1960 p. 46
  9. Goetze, Albrecht (1960). "Review of The Geography of the Hittite Empire by John Garstang, O. R. Gurney". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. University of Chicago Press. 14 (1): 45. doi:10.2307/1359074. JSTOR 1359074.
  10. Cornelius, Fr. (1958). "Geographie des Hethiterreiches". Orientalia. Gregorian Biblical Press. 27 (3): 244. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43073391. Kalašma ist vielleicht Kerasus
  11. Hrozný, Bedřich (April 1935). "Les inscriptions "hittites" hiéroglyphiques de Boybeypunari". Archiv Orientální (in French). Prague. 7 (1): 167 n. 3.
  12. McMahon, John Gregory (1991). The Hittite state cult of the tutelary deities. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-918986-69-6.
  13. Singer, Itamar (1996). Muwatalli's prayer to the assembly of gods through the storm-god of lightning (CTH 381). Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 176 n. 395. ISBN 978-0-7885-0281-1.
  14. Forlanini 2010 p. 158
  15. Lorenz-Link, Ulrike (2009). "1.3.1: Feste der althethitischen Zeit". Uralte Götter und Unterweltsgötter; Religionsgeschichtliche Betrachtungen zur „Sonnengöttin der Erde“ und den „Uralten Göttern“ bei den Hethitern (PDF) (Dr. phil.) (in German). Mainz. pp. 103–104.
  16. 1 2 Weeden and Ullmann 2022 p. 256
  17. 1 2 Glatz, Claudia (12 November 2020). The Making of Empire in Bronze Age Anatolia: Hittite Sovereign Practice, Resistance, and Negotiation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-1-108-86552-4.
  18. Carnevale 2018 p. 342 n. 1361
  19. 1 2 Garstang 1960 p. 45
  20. Carnevale 2018 p. 131
  21. Gerçek, N. İlgi; d’Alfonso, Lorenzo (28 April 2022). "tapariya- and tapariyalli-: Local Leaders and Local Agency in the Hittite Period and Its Aftermath". "A community of peoples": studies on society and politics in the Bible and Ancient Near East in honor of Daniel E. Fleming. Leiden: Brill. pp. 100–122. doi:10.1163/9789004511538_008. ISBN 9789004511538.
  22. Weeden and Ullmann 2022 p. 233
  23. Forlanini 2010 pp. 161–162
  24. Zangger, Eberhard; Woudhuizen, Fred (2017). "Rediscovered Luwian Hieroglyphic Inscriptions from Western Asia Minor". Talanta. 50: 21, 27, 39.
  25. von Schuler, Einar (1956). "Die Würdenträgereide des Arnuwanda". Orientalia (in German). 25 (3): 237–240. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43581508.
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