The Kāpālika tradition and its offshoots in Shaivism

The Kāpālika tradition was a Tantric, non-Puranic form of Shaivism which originated in Medieval India between the 7th and 8th century CE.[1][2][3][4][5] The word is derived from the Sanskrit term kapāla, meaning "skull", and kāpālika means the "skull-men".[1][2][3][4][5]

History

In Vajrayana Buddhism, the symbol of the skull-topped trident (khaṭvāṅga) is said to be inspired by its association with the Kāpālikas.[6] Pictured here is an ivory khaṭvāṅga, 15th century Chinese art, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The Kāpālikas were an extinct sect of Shaivite ascetics devoted to the Hindu god Shiva dating back to the 8th century CE, which traditionally carried a skull-topped trident (khaṭvāṅga) and an empty human skull as a begging bowl.[1][2][3][4][5] Other attributes associated with Kāpālikas were that they revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva by emulating his behavior and characteristics,[1][2][3][4] smeared their body with ashes from the cremation grounds,[1][2][3][4][5] wore their hair long and matted,[1][2][3][4][5] and engaged in transgressive rituals such as sexual intercourse with lower-class women, human sacrifices, consumption of meat and alcoholic beverages, and offerings involving orgiastic sexuality and sexual fluids.[1][2][3][4][5]

According to David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kāpālikas, and historical information about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them.[1][2] Various Indian texts claim that the Kāpālikas drank liquor freely, both for ritual and as a matter of habit.[1] The Chinese pilgrim to India in the 7th century CE, Hsuan Tsang, in his memoir on what is now Northwestern Pakistan, wrote about Buddhists living with naked ascetics who covered themselves with ashes and wore bone wreathes on their heads, but Hsuan Tsang does not call them Kāpālikas or any particular name. Historians of Indian religions and scholars of Hindu studies have interpreted these ascetics variously as Kāpālikas, Digambara Jains, and Pashupatas.[1]

The Kāpālikas were more of a monastic order, states Lorenzen, and not a sect with a textual doctrine.[1] The Kāpālika tradition gave rise to the Kulamārga, a subsect of Tantric Shaivism which preserves some of the distinctive features of the Kāpālika tradition.[7] Some of the Kāpālika Shaiva practices are found in Vajrayana Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who influenced whom.[8] Today, the Kāpālika tradition survives within its Shaivite offshoots: the Aghori order, Kaula, and Trika traditions.[2]

Literature

Dyczkowski (1988: p. 26) holds Hāla's Prakrit literature poem, the Gaha Sattasai, to be one of the first extant literary references to an early Indian Kāpālika ascetic:

One of the earliest references to a Kāpālika is found in Hāla's Prakrit poem, the Gāthāsaptaśati (third to fifth century A.D.) in a verse in which the poet describes a young female Kāpālikā who besmears herself with ashes from the funeral pyre of her lover. Varāhamihira (c. 500-575) refers more than once to the Kāpālikas thus clearly establishing their existence in the sixth century. Indeed, from this time onwards references to Kāpālika ascetics become fairly commonplace in Sanskrit ...[9]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Lorenzen, David N. (2020) [1972]. "Chapter I: Four Śaivite Sects". The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects. Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies (1st ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. XI–XIII, 1–16. doi:10.1525/9780520324947-003. ISBN 9780520324947. OCLC 1224279234.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Barrett, Ronald L. (2008). "Introduction". Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India (1st ed.). Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9780520941014. LCCN 2007007627.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Urban, Hugh B. (2007) [2003]. "India's Darkest Heart: Tantra in the Literary Imagination". Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics, and Power in the Study of Religion (1st ed.). Berkeley and Delhi: University of California Press/Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106–133. doi:10.1525/california/9780520230620.003.0004. ISBN 9780520236561. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt1pp4mm.9.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 James G. Lochtefeld (2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gavin Flood (2008). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 212–213. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7.
  6. ↑ Beer, Robert (2003). The handbook of Tibetan Buddhist symbols. Serindia Publications. p. 102. ISBN 1-932476-03-2. Retrieved 3 February 2010.
  7. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Literature." Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Indological Studies (Kyoto), Nos. 24 & 25 (2012–2013), 2014, pp.4-5, 11, 57.
  8. ↑ Ronald Davidson (2002), Indian Esoteric Buddhism, Columbia University Press. pages 202-218
  9. ↑ Dyczkowski, Mark S. G. (1 January 1988). The Canon of the Śaivāgama and the Kubjikā: Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-494-4.

Further reading

  • Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola (London : Thames & Hudson, 2002).
  • Kapalikas and Kalamukhas: Two Lost Saivite Sects (ISBN 0-520-01842-7) by David N. Lorenzen (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1972).
  • Mattavilasaprahasana by Māni Mādhava Chākyār
  • Ankalaparamecuvari : a goddess of Tamilnadu, her myths and cult (ISBN 3-515-04702-6) by Eveline Meyer (Stuttgart : Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH, 1986)
  • The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. by Gavin Flood. 2003. Malden: Blackwell.
  • Indian Esoteric Buddhism. by Ronald Davidson. 2002. Columbia University Press.
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