Kutenai
Ktunaxa
Native toCanada, United States
RegionBritish Columbia, Montana, Idaho
Ethnicity1,536 Ktunaxa (2016 census)[1][2]
Native speakers
345 (2010-2016)[3][4]
Latin (Kutenai alphabet)
Language codes
ISO 639-2kut
ISO 639-3kut
Glottologkute1249
ELPKtunaxa
Kutenai language
Kutenai is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
PeopleKtunaxa
LanguageKtunaxa,
ʔa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam
CountryKtunaxa ʔamakʔas

The Kutenai language (/ˈkuːtəneɪ, -i/), also Kootenai, Kootenay, Ktunaxa, and Ksanka, is the native language of the Kutenai people of Montana and Idaho in the United States and British Columbia in Canada.[5] It is typically considered a language isolate, unrelated to the Salishan family of languages spoken by neighboring tribes on the coast and in the interior Plateau. The Kutenai also speak ʔa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam, Ktunaxa Sign Language.[6]

Classification

Kutenai is typically considered a language isolate. There have been attempts to place Kutenai in either a Macro-Algonquian or Macro-Salishan language family, most recently with Salish,[7] but they have not been generally accepted as proven.[8][9]

Typology

Like other languages in the area, Kutenai has a rich inventory of consonants and a small inventory of vowels, though there are allophones of the three basic phonemic vowels. The lack of a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants is much as in other languages of the area.[7] Because Kutenai is on the periphery of this linguistic area, the loss of a rich lateral inventory is consistent with other nearby languages, which now have only one or two lateral consonants. One such language group contains the Sahaptian languages, which have had a similar loss of laterals. Nez Perce has /ts/, believed to be the lateral affricate in the proto-language. Nez Perce, like Kutenai, lies in the eastern periphery of the Northwest Linguistic area.[7]

Another typological analysis investigates the lexical category of preverbs in Kutenai. This lexical category distinguishes neighboring Algonquian languages, found to the east of the Kootenay Rocky Mountains and near the Kutenai linguistic area.[10] Another typological relationship Kutenai could have is the presence of its obviation system.[11][12]

Current status

In 1969, the Kutenai language was spoken by 446 registered Indians in Canada.[13] As of 2021, Statistics Canada reported 210 Ktunaxa speakers.[14] Referring to the Ktunaxa Nation Council (KNC) Traditional Knowledge and Language program findings, Ktunaxa scholar Christopher Horsethief stated that 24 fluent speakers remain and all are over the age of 65.[15]

As of 2012, the Ktunaxa people in Canada are working on a language revitalization effort.[5] Tribal councils from the separate communities of the Ktunaxa nation have contributed a selection of audio recordings of Kutenai words and phrases to the FirstVoices website, an online catalogue of the indigenous languages of North America.[16] As of November 2017, the Ktunaxa webpage had 2500 words and 1114 phrases archived, stories and songs recorded, a language learning app available, and First Voices tutor. The FirstVoices Tutor provides lessons and practices in the given language. The Ktunaxa Language app, accessible for iOS and Android devices, is a Ktunaxa dictionary which uses the audio recordings of words and phrases, and provides flashcards with audio, of the vocabulary found on the FirstVoices website. The Ktunaxa nation aims to target younger generations with the FirstVoices materials to teach fluency in the Kutenai language.[17]

One such example is the ʔAq̓am community of the Ktunaxa Nation, also known as St. Mary's band in Cranbrook B.C, which has a private elementary school called the ʔaq̓amnikSchool. This school, as well as providing standard BC curriculum, teaches the Ktunaxa language and cultural traditions of the people to younger generations. It also has an after school program and a program called Headstart, which helps adults of children up to the age of six learn about teaching the Ktunaxa culture and language to their children.[18]

The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation have founded the Salish Kootenai College, a tribal college on the Flathead reservation in Pablo, Montana. The college offers a certificate program in Native American studies, which requires that students have knowledge of the history and culture of the Salish and Ktunaxa people. The curriculum also offers classes in basic Kutenai language pronunciation and grammar.[19] Some sources suggest that the knowledge and preservation of the native communities culture will contribute to the preservation of the communities language, but there is no evidence yet from the Salish Kootenai College to support this claim.[20]

College of the Rockies main campus is in Cranbrook B.C on the territory of the Ktunaxa people. As such, the college has collaborated with the Ktunaxa people for 40 years as of 2015. As well as offering indigenous studies classes, the College of the Rockies offers basic Ktunaxa classes online, KTUN-101 and KTUN-102,[21] using the FirstVoices website as the primary learning resource. They also offer a Ktunaxa Workshop for beginner learners providing basic phrases and pronunciation, and cultural information of the Ktunaxa people.

Through the use of social media, another example of Indigenous language revitalization efforts is the Instagram page KtunaxaPride created by Aiyana Twigg in the fall of 2020.[22] Twigg, a Ktunaxa and Blackfoot student who recently graduated with a double major from her studies in First Nations and Endangered Languages and Anthropology from the University of British Columbia, stated that "this page will be dedicated to teaching, learning, and talking about the Ktunaxa language, culture, history, territory, and worldview of who we are as Ktunaxanin̓tik”.[22] While originally intended for the Ktunaxa community, the page has also inspired other Indigenous communities as well as non-Indigenous people to learn about Indigenous culture and language.[22]

The wupnik' natanik site is an online social networking site designed to create a space to connect Ktunaxa community members with their language, culture, and history.[23] Community engagement on this platform has resulted in improved access to Ktunaxa font resources for web publishing, and collaboration on identifying the place and subjects of Ktunaxa historical photos.[23]

History of description

The first grammar of Kutenai was compiled by Roman Catholic missionary Philippo Canestrelli, and was published in 1894 in Latin.[24](Online text here)

In 1918, Franz Boas published The Kutenai Tales, a transcription and translation of multiple Ktunaxa stories. The stories were gathered by Alexander F. Pierce in 1891 and Boas in 1914, and told by members of the Ktunaxa people including Andrew Pierre, Numan Pierre, Joe Mission, Andrew Felix, and the major contributor from the community, a man referred to as Barnaby.

Paul L. Garvin did various descriptive work describing the phonemics, morphology, and syllabification in Ktunaxa. He also has two sources of transcriptions of speakers talking.[25][26]

In 1991, Lawrence Richard Morgan wrote a description of the Kutenai Language as his PhD dissertation through the University of California, Berkeley. This description is focused on how the language works and specifically defining the working parts of the language. Morgan's work is an exhaustive list of each grammatical particle, morpheme, and affix, with their respective environments and their varying forms.[7]

Phonology

Consonant phonemes

Kutenai has no phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants.[7]

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
plain sibilant
Nasal plain m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
glottalized ʔm ⟨mʼ⟩ ʔn ⟨nʼ⟩
Plosive/
Affricate		 plain p ⟨p⟩ t ⟨t⟩ t͡s ⟨ȼ⟩ k ⟨k⟩ q ⟨q⟩ ʔ ⟨ʔ⟩
ejective pʼ ⟨pʼ⟩ tʼ ⟨tʼ⟩ t͡sʼ ⟨ȼʼ⟩ kʼ ⟨kʼ⟩ qʼ ⟨qʼ⟩
Fricative ɬ ⟨ⱡ⟩ s ⟨s⟩ χ ⟨x⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Approximant j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩

Vowel phonemes

Vowel length in Ktunaxa is also contrastive, so two words can be differentiated just by lengthening or shortening a vowel. Some such minimal pairs are the verbal stem 'to dig something up' [ʔakaːkʼuː] and the noun '(steel animal) trap' [ʔaːkaːkʼuː][7] and the verbal stem for 'to fall out in this direction/to fall out from somewhere' [ʔakmuːxuː] and 'the place where (someone is) sitting, one's place at a table' [ʔaːkmuːxuː].[7] Both pairs differ only in the length of the first vowel, [a] vs [a:].

Front Back
High i ⟨i⟩ u ⟨u⟩
Low a ⟨a⟩

Orthography

Kutenai is written in the Kutenai alphabet, which is derived from the Latin alphabet.

Grammar

In general terms, Kutenai is an agglutinative language, with many grammatical functions being served by both prefixes and suffixes, primarily on the verb, though some affixes select nouns as well.[27] As mentioned above, a distinctive feature of Kutenai is its use of an obviation system as a way to track which entities and concepts are particularly central/salient to a story being told and as a grammatical way of clarifying the roles of each entity in sentences with two third-person arguments: "Pronouns, nouns, verbs, and adverbs all take obviative markers",[27] making it particularly different from some more well-known obviation systems (like the Algonquian one, which allows for obviation only on third-person animate nouns). Kutenai also makes use of an inverse system."[28][29] The language has an overt copula, ʔin `to be'.

Syntax

Word order

Word order in Kutenai can be flexible in response to discourse and pragmatic concerns.[7] As is the case with many head-marking languages, it is rare to have both an overt subject and an overt object in a sentence since the morphology of the verb makes it clear who is acting on whom. Morgan states that if it is appropriate to express both arguments of a verb in a "neutral" context, VOS word order is preferred; however, it also alternates with VSO order.[7] The pre-verbal position can be occupied by adverbs, as seen in these three examples:

1)

qa·kiⱡ

ADV

hiȼ'kiⱡ

search

-ni

-IND

hukiʔ

louse/lice

-s

-OBV

tiⱡna

old woman

qa·kiⱡ hiȼ'kiⱡ -ni hukiʔ -s tiⱡna

ADV search -IND louse/lice -OBV {old woman}

The old lady started looking for lice.

2)

pikʔak

long ago

-s

OBV

naqaʔi

exist

-ni

-IND

titkat'

man

qakⱡik

called

xaxa

crow

-s

-OBV

pikʔak -s naqaʔi -ni titkat' qakⱡik xaxa -s

{long ag}o OBV exist -IND man called crow -OBV

Long ago there was a man named `Xaxa' (or Crow).

3)

is

very

-iⱡ

PVB

ȼⱡakiⱡ

like

-ni

-IND

xaxa

crow

naʔuti

girl

-s

-OBV

is -iⱡ ȼⱡakiⱡ -ni xaxa naʔuti -s

very PVB like -IND crow girl -OBV

Crow loves Naʔuti.

One aspect of Kutenai that complicates word order somewhat is the fact that the verb is marked for first- or second-person subjects by "affixal or clitic pronouns" that precede the stem, hu/hun for 'I' and hin for 'you'.[7] It is common in the orthography to write the pronouns as separate words, making it seem as if the word order is Subject Pronoun + Verb (+ Object).

Inverse

In many languages, conditions for inverse include situations in which the first or second person is in the "object" role, and the third person is the "subject" as in 'She saw you/me.' In Kutenai, however, the situations use specific "first-/second-person object" morphology, separate from the inverse.[28] As a consequence, Kutenai's inverse system is most clearly observable in interactions between third persons. The following two examples (from Dryer 1991) show the direct and inverse, respectively:

4)

wu·kat

see

-i

-IND

paⱡkiy

woman

-s

OBV

titqat'

man

wu·kat -i paⱡkiy -s titqat'

see -IND woman OBV man

The man saw the woman.

5)

wu·kat

see

-aps

-INV

-i

-IND

titqat'

man

-s

-OBV

paⱡkiy

woman

wu·kat -aps -i titqat' -s paⱡkiy

see -INV -IND man -OBV woman

The (obviative) man saw the (proximate) woman.

Clause typing

Kutenai subordinate/dependent clauses are marked with a k and a lack of indicative morphology on the verb, as are questions, nominalizations, and relative clauses.[7] The k can cliticize to the material that follows it, as can be seen in this example.

6)

wu·kat

see

-i

-IND

titqat'

man

-s

OBV

k-

SUB-

was-

quick

aqna

do

-p

-IN

-s

OBV

wu·kat -i titqat' -s k- was- aqna -p -s

see -IND man OBV SUB- quick do -IN OBV

He saw a man doing something in a hurry. (He saw him, a man that he does something quickly.)

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Aboriginal Ancestry Responses (73), Single and Multiple Aboriginal Responses (4), Residence on or off reserve (3), Residence inside or outside Inuit Nunangat (7), Age (8A) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Government of Canada. 25 October 2017. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
  2. ↑ "American FactFinder - Results". factfinder.census.gov. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2020-02-14. Retrieved 2018-01-13.
  3. ↑ "Kutenai". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
  4. ↑ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics (2 August 2017). "Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census - Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2018-05-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. 1 2 "Canada: The Ktunaxa - Living the Language". Living the Language. Al Jazeera English. 2012-05-02. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
  6. ↑ Auld, Francis. "ʾa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam". Facebook (in Kutenai). Retrieved 22 June 2017.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Morgan, Lawrence (1991). "A Description of the Kutenai Language". eScholarship. Retrieved 2015-07-29.
  8. ↑ Marianne Mithun. The Languages of Native North America (1999, Cambridge).
  9. ↑ Lyle Campbell. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (1997, Oxford).
  10. ↑ Dryer, Matthew S. 2002. "A comparison of Preverbs in Kutenai and Algonquian." In D. Pentland (Ed.), Proceedings of the Thirtieth Algonquian Conference (pp. 63-94). Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
  11. ↑ Dryer, Matthew S. 2007. "Kutenai, Algonquian, and the Pacific Northwest from an areal perspective." In H. Wolfart (Ed.), Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Algonquian Conference (pp. 155-206). Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
  12. ↑ Dryer, Matthew S. 1992. "A comparison of the obviation systems of Kutenai and Algonquian." Papers of the 23rd Algonquian Conference. Ottawa: Carleton.
  13. ↑ National Atlas of Canada (4th ed.). 1974. pp. 119–120.
  14. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-09-21). "The Daily — Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  15. ↑ Horsethief, Christopher (2012). "Re-differentiation as collective intelligence: The Ktunaxa language online community". arXiv:1204.3891. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ↑ "FirstVoices: Ktunaxa Community Portal". Retrieved 2012-07-08.
  17. ↑ Pagliaro, J. 2010. "Technology gives dying languages voice." Geolinguistics 37: 114-116.
  18. ↑ "ʔaq̓amnik' School | aq'am". www.aqam.net. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
  19. ↑ "Salish Kootenai College". Retrieved 2016-11-11.
  20. ↑ Richardson, Louise B. 1997. "Tribal College Curricula as Evidence for the Contemporary Use of Indigenous Languages in North America." Geolinguistics 23: 61-77.
  21. ↑ "Courses". College of the Rockies. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  22. 1 2 3 "UBC Arts grad Aiyana Twigg wins Lieutenant Governor medal for work on Indigenous language revitalization". Faculty of Arts. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  23. 1 2 Horsethief, Christopher (2012). "Re-differentiation as collective intelligence: The Ktunaxa language online community". arXiv:1204.3891. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  24. ↑ Canestrelli, Philippo (1894). Grammar of the Kutenai Language. ISBN 9780665024436. Retrieved 2010-11-15.
  25. ↑ Garvin, Paul L. 1948. "Kutenai III: Morpheme Distributions (Prefix, Theme, Suffix)."
  26. ↑ Garvin 1953
  27. 1 2 Mast, Susan J. 1988. "Aspects of Kutenai Morphology." Master's Thesis, University of Pittsburgh.
  28. 1 2 Dryer, Matthew S. 1991. "Subject and Inverse in Kutenai." Occasional papers on linguistics No. 16, Proceedings from the American Indian Languages Conference edited by James E. Redden. (Conference held at the University of California at Santa Cruz.)
  29. ↑ Dryer, Matthew S. 1994. "The discourse function of the Kutenai inverse." Voice and inversion 28 (1994): 65.

Bibliography

  • Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Dryer, Matthew S (2002). A Comparison of Preverbs in Kutenai and Algonquian. In Proceedings of the Thirtieth Algonquian Conference, edited by David Pentland, pp. 63–94. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
  • Dryer, Matthew S. (2007). "Kutenai, Algonquian, and the Pacific Northwest from an areal perspective". In, Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Algonquian Conference, edited by H. C. Wolfart, pp. 155–206. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. ISSN 0831-5671
  • Dryer, Matthew S (1991). "Subject and inverse in Kutenai". Proceedings of the Hokan-Penutian Workshop. American Indian Languages Conferences. Occasional papers in linguistics. Vol. 16. University of California, Santa Cruz. pp. 183–202. Retrieved 2013-09-19.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1947. Christian Names in Kutenai. International Journal of American Linguistics 13: 69–77.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1948a. Kutenai Lexical Innovations. Word 4: 120–126.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1948b. Kutenai I: Phonemics. International Journal of American Linguistics 14: 37–42.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1948c. Kutenai II: Morpheme Variation. International Journal of American Linguistics 14: 87–90.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1948d. Kutenai III: Morpheme Distributions (prefix, theme, suffix). International Journal of American Linguistics 14: 171–178.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1951a. Kutenai IV: Word Classes. International Journal of American Linguistics 17: 84–97.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1951b. L’obviation en Kutenai: échantillon d’une catégorie grammaticale amérindienne. Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 47: 166–212.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1953. Short Kutenai Texts. International Journal of American Linguistics 19: 305–311.
  • Garvin, Paul. 1954. Colloquial Kutenai Text: Conversation II. International Journal of American Linguistics 20: 316–334.
  • Horsethief, Christopher (2012). "Re-differentiation as collective intelligence: The Ktunaxa language online community". In, Proceedings of Collective Intelligence Conference, Doctoral Program in Leadership Studies Gonzaga University, eprint arXiv:1204.389. arXiv:1204.3891
  • Mithun, Marianne (2000) The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7
  • Morgan, Lawrence Richard (1991) A Description of the Kutenai Language. University of California, Berkeley. Unpublished. OCLC 27109565
Kutenai language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Wiktionary has a word list at Appendix:Kutenai word list

Ktunaxa language learning resources

  • FirstVoices: Ktunaxa Community Portal online spoken dictionary, phrasebook, and language learning games
  • First Voices Language Tutor online course
  • wupnik' natanik social networking site, translation: "new times", pertaining to technology[1]
  • Ktunaxa app bilingual dictionary with audio and images, for Android and iOS
  • Ktunaxa Books app collection of books for children and adults covering language and culture, for Android and iOS
  • Ktunaxa Grammar App for Android and iOS
  • Kootenai Culture Committee of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes. Ksanka ʼA·kłukaqwum = Kootenai Dictionary. Elmo, Mont: Kootenai Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, 1999.
  1. ↑ Horsethief, Christopher (2012). "Re-differentiation as collective intelligence: The Ktunaxa language online community". arXiv:1204.3891. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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