Foundations of modern astronomy

Astronomy, it can be argued, is the oldest science in the world and practised by many of the ancient cultures. In ancient times astronomical practise involved the observation of the skies with the naked eye, noting the changes in and movement of the Sun, stars and planets using this information to plot ritual or agricultural calendars. Some of the earliest recorded astronomical observations were made by the Chinese which date from the 6th century BC. One of these observations note the regular eclipses of the Moon which were explained as the Moon being attacked by a hungry dragon. People diligently made as much noise as possible so the dragon would flee.^[1]

Western astronomy has its genesis in the kingdoms of Sumer and Assyria where priests used observation of the heavens for purposes of divination. Based in these practises Babylonia is credited with the development of a more sophisticated observation of the skies and detecting the periodic nature of astronomical activity that is able to be predicted through mathematics. The work of the Babylonian astronomers was the basis for Greek, Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Islamic, Central Asian and western European astrology.^[1]

In the 4th century BC Greek astronomers were the first to develop a three dimensional model to describe the motion of the planets around the Earth. Later, a slowly developing debate regarding the Earth versus the Sun as the centre of this movement grew, culminating in the work of Copernicus who posited a mathematically supported system where the planets revolved around the Sun. His work was later expanded by Galileo and Kepler.^[1]

Up until the 17th century, astronomy was positional and depended on observations of the naked eye. In the early 17th century a new instrument, the telescope was invented by Hans Lipperhey and quickly taken up and improved upon by Galileo Galilei. In 1610, armed with his 20 XX refractor telescope, Galileo discovered four moons of Jupiter and for the first time in history observed the movement of a satellite around a planet. Using his telescope Galileo also observed that the phases of Venus were similar to lunar phases and argued that these observations empirically supported the theory that the Earth moves around the Sun.^[1]

James Kepler a contemporary of Galileo's supported Galileo's observations. He was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical cases. Years of his research culminated in the publication of his "Epitome of Copernican Astronomy" in 1615 in which his three laws of planetary motion were outlined, theorising a heliocentric planetary system. By 1687 the marriage of physics and astronomy reached its epitome as Isaac Newton realised that the same force which attracted objects to the Earth also fixed the Moon in orbit around the Earth and posited the law of universal gravitation.^[1][2]

Astronomy in Australia

More than 40,0000 years ago the indigenous people in Australia first observed the southern skies and developed a series of complex cosmic mythologies around the regular movement and appearance of stars, planets, the Moon and Sun. While different Aboriginal communities developed their own stories and explanations, there were shared threads between these cosmologies. Many groups engendered the Sun as a woman warming the land. The Moon was male, once young and slim (the waxing crescent moon) he grows fat and lazy as the full moon develops night after night. After breaking the law he is killed by his people (the new moon) and after being dead three days he rises to repeat the cycle. Other Aboriginal people such as the Kuwema people of the Northern Territory believe the Moon grew fat by eating the spirits of those who disobey tribal laws.^[1]

Aboriginal people in different areas used the sky as a calendar which indicated the time to move to a new location and food supply. For instance the Boorong people of Victoria knew that when the "Mallee-fowl" constellation (Lyra) disappears in October, to "sit with the sun", it was time to start gathering her eggs on Earth. Others used the first appearance of Orion in the sky to mark the time that Dingo puppies were about to be born. ^[3][1]

European astronomy in NSW

In 1768 Cook set sail from Plymouth in England. His destination was Tahiti where he, the accompanying astronomer, two artists and two naturalists were to observe and document the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun. Observation and documentation of the transit was to provide an accurate measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The southern ocean in 1769 was known to be the best place to take such a measurement. On his return journey, Cook "discovered" the east coast of Australia which he mapped on this journey home.^[1]

In 1788 the First Fleet, arrived at Botany Bay and then moved on to settle on the shores of Sydney Cove. With the fleet was a young Lieutenant William Dawes, who had had a deep interest in astronomy. Dawes was charged with the task of setting up the first observatory in the colony and carried all the requisite equipment to do this on the long voyage to the colony. He was to observe the predicted return of Halley's comet in 1789. Dawes pitched his "tent-observatory" on a rocky, heavily wooded ridge on the west side of Sydney Cove, a kilometre away from the first settlement. The area was later named Dawes Point. A plaque placed on the south pylon of the Sydney Harbour Bridge commemorates Dawes observatory. Despite his attention to the night skies, Dawes did not observe the comet.^[1]

In late 1821 Governor Brisbane ordered the establishment of an observatory at Parramatta from where he, with the help of two assistants, began the process of mapping the southern skies. Brisbane equipped the observatory with the finest instruments available at the time and installed a scientific library in the building. This facility was operational up until 1847 and the published findings from this observatory marked Australia's first significant contribution to international astronomy. The site of this observatory is listed on the NSW State Heritage Register.^[1]

In 1858 under the supervision of the Colonial Astronomer of NSW, Rev. William Scot, the construction of the Sydney Observatory at the Rocks was commenced, It was completed in 1859 although the first observations were recorded in 1858. The observatory included a central time-ball tower, a dome to accommodate an equatorial telescope and a transit room for meridian instruments. This was the first government funded observatory established in Australia with others established in Melbourne, Adelaide, and Perth by the close of the 19th century. Like the Parramatta observatory site the Sydney Observatory is listed on the NSW State Heritage Register to commemorate its heritage values.^[1]

During the second half of the 19th century the nation's first astronomical groups and societies were established and a strong community of amateur astronomers and telescope makers emerged. The amateur practitioners funded their own facilities and made an enormous contribution to astronomy in Australia. John Tebutt was one of the most significant of these amateur astronomers. Inspired to pursue astronomy by his observation of the spectacular Donati's comet in 1858, Tebutt became internationally acclaimed in 1861 when he became the first person to discover the "Great Comet".^[4] Tebutt established an observatory at Windsor in 1864 and continued to make important observations in the southern skies "including lunar occultation of stars, eclipses and shadow transits of the satellites of Jupiter, the position of minor planets and double and variable stars". Once again this pioneering observatory, "Peninsular House" is listed on the State Heritage Register.^[1][5]

Ken Beames who designed and constructed the Observatory complex at Linden was part of this strong tradition of amateur astronomy of the late 19th and early 20th century. As historian of astronomy in Australia Wayne Orchiston points out the amateur cohort of astronomers fall into 3 categories:"apprentices, journeymen and masters. Apprentices are just beginning their astronomical careers, while masters are those acknowledged experts who are able to communicate effectively with professional astronomers in their own chosen fields of expertise. Kenneth Beams was very definitely a master".^[6][1]

Unlike most other amateur astronomers Beames' field of interest was in the design and construction of telescopes and optical instruments rather than the observation of the night skies. In fact during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s Beams was one of the few if not the only amateur or professional astronomers making telescopes and other optical instruments for astronomy in NSW. In a newspaper article from 1970 Beames noted that he had made in excess of 450 telescopes ranging from 6 inch to 24 inch instruments.^[7] This is unusual during the mid decades of the twentieth century when most astronomical instruments were imported from Britain, Europe or America.^[8][1]

Although not a professional astronomer, Beames' work making telescopes and other instruments has been praised by both amateur and professional astronomers as masterpieces of craftsmanship and engineering which have contributed to the development of the field in NSW and Australia. The 24 inch reflector telescope Beames completed in 1939 was the largest amateur or professionally constructed reflector telescope in NSW and retained this status until the 40 inch and 24 inch telescopes were constructed and installed at the Siding Spring Observatory in the mid 1960s. The only other amateur built telescope to rival Beames was that built by Captain Baker in 1868 for the Ballarat Observatory and the only professional telescope that was larger than Beames 24 inch telescope was the 30 inch Reynolds Reflector telescope at Mr Stromlo. The Beames 24 inch telescope was also unique as one of the first large telescopes in Australia to incorporate electric motor drives to operate the telescope and dome.^[1]

Beames designed and engineered other optical instruments for astronomical uses by amateur and professional organisations in NSW. One example of such an instrument is the blink comparator commissioned by Father O'Leary of the Riverview College Observatory which was completed in 1939. This instrument is still held in the Riverview Observatory Collection and is likely to be the first blink comparator designed and engineered in Australia. After World War II these instruments became commonplace.^[9][1]

Kenneth Beames

Kenneth Beames was born in Gilgandra in 1899. His first job was at the Gligandra Post Office where as a telegram boy he learned morse code and soon moved on to becoming a telegraph operator and postal officer. He also learned semaphore. During World War I Ken Beams served as a signaller for the Australian Light Horse in Palestine and on returning to Australia he trained in electrical and mechanical engineering after war. He then served an apprenticeship as a telephone technician later moving onto the area of wireless making.^[1]

In 1924 he established a business making wireless sets which operated from his home first in Clemens St, Drummoyne near Five Dock and expanded to include the manufacture of various electric appliances, gaskets and washers. By the 1930s his business was known as Ken Beames Engineering Company.^[1]

In the 1930s Beames began studying optics and mathematics in pursuit of his interest in astronomy. In 1934 he completed his first telescope, a 6-inch or 15.2 cm equatorial mount, reflector telescope. Late in the 1930s he began work on a 24-inch (610 mm) reflector telescope at this workshop in Drummoyne. He obtained the glass blank from Chance Brothers in England, and then set about constructing an electric grinding machine to grind and polish the blank. At the same time he worked on the equatorial mounting and the telescope tube and the optical and engineering work were complete by 1939 although the telescope was not assembled until after World War II. During the 1940s Beames also mounted a 17-inch (432 mm) Schmidt telescope and a 6inch (162 mm) refractor telescope used guide scope on the side of the main telescope. The Schmidt was never completed as the corrector plate was stolen before it was installed.^[1]

During the war years Beames' skills in optics enabled him to make a significant contribution to the production of optical munitions. At the time, there were very few people with the skill and knowledge of optic production and his services were called upon to make sighting telescope and signal lamp reflectors for Aldis signal lamps used by the Royal Australian Navy & British Navy. The extent of this production is currently unknown as he probably sub-contracted to AWA in Ashfield and is not mentioned in the official history as a contractor. Nevertheless, preliminary research in the observatory archive and assessment of moveable heritage there indicates that his work producing optical munitions during the war was sizable. He also manufactured naval artillery fuse gaskets for the British Navy and parts for the airframes of Mosquito bombers for the Royal; Australian Airforce. It was also during the war that Beames joined the NSW Branch of the British Astronomers Association.^[1]

At the end of the war Beames took steps to finally locate and assemble his 24-inch telescope in a suitable place away from the light pollution afforded by Sydney. It was first assembled in a sliding roof observatory building at Lisarow near Gosford in 1946 but the clouded night skies experienced there prompted Beames to purchase land at Linden in the Blue Mountains in 1948. The square brick base of the observatory building was built by his friend and fellow member of the British Astronomical Association, Albert York who was a builder by trade.^[1]

Over the next ten years Beams designed and built the dome, and the electrical control systems including winding his own specialised motors. He built most of the machinery and equipment necessary to assist in the construction of the telescope which was housed in three workshops on site. Finally by 1959, the 24 inch telescope was installed in the observatory building and made operational.^[1]

Beames had an association with those at the Mt. Stromlo observatory although there are few records of this visit to Linden by Bart Bok,^[10] and a letter from Mt Stromlo (Cyril Jackson) asking for help constructing a mounting for the "Ross Camera" to be used in production of a Star Catalogue. The letter states in part "I thought you the most likely person, knowledgeable and practical who could provide me with some ideas" and "you know that I was very impressed with the quality of your work and enterprise, and our observatory would like to keep in contact with you". It is not known whether Mr Beames was able to make the mounting or not.^[1]

There is evidence from letters from the CSIRO, of Beames lending the CSIRO Physics laboratory parabolic mirrors for ongoing experimental use.^[1]

World War II optics

While Beames' telescope attracted much interest from amateur and professional astronomers who assumed the optics to be first class due to his experience manufacturing optics during World War II no one else was allowed access to the telescope until the 1980s. This was when Wayne Orchiston, then working at Mt Stromlo Observatory and close friend, was allowed to make a number of observations in return for re-silvering the telescope's mirrors. Orchiston's observations confirmed the fine quality of the optics and the power of the instrument and further advanced the respect of both his amateur and professional colleagues.^[1]

In the 1960s Beames turned his attention to the construction of a large planetarium. Although based on the original Zeiss model it was essentially designed from first principles to allow Beames to incorporate several innovations to improve the performance of the planetarium. Beames planned for the planetarium to form the centre of an astronomy education centre when it was installed in its own dome located on his property. Work continued on the planetarium and the mechanical, drive mechanisms and projectors were complete by the mid 1980s when illness prevented Beames from continuing with the project. All that remained to be completed were the star projection system and the lenses.^[1]

In addition to his work making telescopes and optical instruments Ken Beames continued to operate his regular manufacturing business and made gaskets and fuel injector components for Leyland busses for NSW Department of Transport continuously from the 1940s to 1980s. This work helped to fund his ongoing work designing telescopes and other instruments. He also worked on other personal projects such as the brass clock and the brass leaved book – the Rubaiyt of Omar Khayym. These objects display Beames' attention to detail and fine engineering skills and are regarded as an important part of the moveable heritage associated with the observatory.^[1]

Ken Beames was very generous with his time for amateur telescope makers, and would advise them and give them materials to assist in their projects. For example, during a documented visit to Port Macquarie Observatory, Beames constructed and donated to the observatory a set of apparatus for testing Foucault mirrors. Many telescope makers were given glass blanks and grinding powders with which to start their own telescopes.^[1]

Ken Beams' manufacturing business 1986 and he died in 1989. The use of the site as an amateur observatory for the community continues until today.^[1]

Condition

The historic telescope is in good mechanical and optical condition – the mirrors were re-aluminised by Mt Stromlo Observatory as a gift to Ken Beames.^[1] The custom electrical equipment built by Beames has failed and parts are no longer available.^[1] Machinery in workshops shows signs of disuse, but is probably serviceable. Drawings, documents and notebooks are degrading and in need of conservation. Other artefacts are in a variety of conditions ranging from poor and in need of conservation, through to excellent, depending on age and storage.^[1] The collection of tools, machinery, dies, jigs, patterns, notebooks and drawings and other material associated with the construction of the telescope and other works by Beames has a very high degree of integrity in terms of the completeness of the collection, the variety of skill applications it represents, and the overall condition.^[1]

Modifications and dates

• Alterations made to power the dome and telescope drive by Beames in the 1980s to work around failure of some sub-systems.^[1]
• New 3 phase sub-main installed in dome following lightning damage to old board in 2008.^[1]
• 30 inch (762 mm) reflector installed in separate building in 2002 for public access and observations.
• 8 inch (200 mm) and 12 inch (300 mm) mm reflecting telescopes purchased in 2005 and 2007 to assist public access viewing and education.^[1]
• The original storeroom was lost in the 1977 bushfires and rebuilt in 1978.^[1]

Further information

Ken Beames' engineering business was originally located in Clements St. Five Dock, and moved to the Blue Mountains following World War II.^[1] Despite being highly regarded in the scientific engineering and astronomical community, the story of Ken Beames and his work remains largely untold. Following his death in 1989 (aged 89) his estate passed into the hands of a trust. With few funds available the trust, the Linden Observatory Trust has struggled to maintain the site with the help of volunteers and members of the amateur astronomical community.^[1] Ken Beames work and history is unique and worthy of research and conservation. The long term viability of the site is unknown and the collection and its integrity is at risk without conservation measures.^[1] The site is still in use by amateur astronomers in keeping with Ken Beames' wishes that it be used for amateur astronomy and education; on two occasions supernova have been discovered by observers at Linden.^[1] A significant assessment of Beames' sketches and engineering drawings has been made by Mr. Julian Holland in 2008. This work is being funded by a Community Heritage Grant obtained by the observatory trustees.^[1]

Bibliography

• Mellor, P (1958). Australia in the War of 1939–1945.
• Absolute Astronomy.Com (2009). Amateur Telescope Making.
• Admovere Stargazers (2008). Kenneth Beames and Linden Observatory.
• ASHET News (2008). John Tebbut, Ken Beames and their observatories.
• Avtronics Aust Pty Ltd (2009). Francis Lord Optics.
• Bright Sparcs Exhibition. The Optical Munitions Panel.
• Discontents (2009). A Wartime Observatory Observed.
• Holland, Julian (2008). Linden Observatory Significance Assessment.
• King, HC (1979). The History of the telescope. ISBN 9780486238937.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1999). Comets and Communication: Amateur-Professional Tension in Australian Astronomy.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1998). Amateur Professional Collaboration in Australian Science: The Earliest Astronomical Groups and Societies.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1997). Role of the Amateur in Popularising Astronomy: an Australian Case Study.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1997). 'Ken Beames: Australian telescope maker extraordinaire.'.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1995). The Large Reflecting Telescope in Amateur Astronomy: an Australian Case Study.
• Orchiston, Wayne (1990). Ken Beames (1899–1989).
• Orchiston, Wayne (1989). Linden Observatory: One Man's Dream.
• Victoria, AIP (2008). The Laby Medal.
• WSAAG org (2013). "Western Sydney Amateur Astronomy Group".

Attribution

This Wikipedia article was originally based on Linden Observatory Complex, entry number 01807 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on {{{accessdate}}}.