Tintype of two young women in Lowell, Massachusetts (c. 1870)

The Lowell mill girls were young female workers who came to work in textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts during the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The workers initially recruited by the corporations were daughters of New England farmers, typically between the ages of 15 and 35.[1] By 1840, at the height of the Textile Revolution, the Lowell textile mills had recruited over 8,000 workers, with women making up nearly three-quarters of the mill workforce.

During the early period, women came to the mills for various reasons: to help a brother pay for college, for the educational opportunities offered in Lowell, or to earn supplemental income for the family. Francis Cabot Lowell emphasized the importance of providing housing and a form of education to mirror the boarding schools that were emerging in the 19th century. He also wanted to provide an environment that sharply contrasted the poor conditions of the British Mills notoriously portrayed by Dickens. Their wages were only half of what men were paid, yet many women were able to attain economic independence for the first time. The Lowell mill girls earned between three and four dollars per week. The cost of boarding ranged between seventy-five cents to $1.25, giving them the ability to acquire good clothes, books, and savings. The girls created book clubs and published journals such as the Lowell Offering, which provided a literary outlet with stories about life in the mills.

Over time, adult women displaced child labor, which an increasing number of factory owners were disinclined to hire.[2] As the "factory system" matured, however, many women joined the broader American labor movement to protest increasingly harsh working conditions. Labor historian Philip Foner observed that "they succeeded in raising serious questions about woman’s so-called ‘place’."[3]

In 1845, after a number of protests and strikes, many operatives came together to form the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association, the first union of working women in the United States. The Association adopted a newspaper called the Voice of Industry, in which workers published sharp critiques of the new industrialism. The Voice stood in sharp contrast to other literary magazines published by female operatives.

Industrialization of Lowell

In 1813, businessman Francis Cabot Lowell formed a company, the Boston Manufacturing Company, and built a textile mill next to the Charles River in Waltham, Massachusetts. Unlike the earlier Rhode Island System, where only carding and spinning were done in a factory while the weaving was often put out to neighboring farms to be done by hand, the Waltham mill was the first integrated mill in the United States, transforming raw cotton into cotton cloth in one building.[2]

In 1821, Francis Cabot Lowell's business associates, looking to expand the Waltham textile operations, purchased land around the Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimack River in East Chelmsford. Incorporated as the Town of Lowell in 1826, by 1840, the textile mills employed almost 8,000 workers — mostly women between the ages of 15 and 35.[4][5]

The "City of Spindles", as Lowell came to be known, quickly became the center of the Industrial Revolution in America. New, large scale machinery, which had come to dominate the production of cloth by 1840, was being rapidly developed in lockstep with the equally new ways of organizing workers for mass production. Together, these mutually reinforcing technological and social changes produced staggering increases: between 1840 and 1860, the number of spindles in use went from 2.25 million to almost 5.25 million; bales of cotton used from 300,000 to nearly 1 million, and the number of workers from 72,000 to nearly 122,000.[6]

This tremendous growth translated directly into large profits for the textile corporations: between 1846 and 1850, for instance, the dividends of the Boston-based investors, the group of textile companies that founded Lowell, averaged 14% per year. Most corporations recorded similarly high profits during this period.

Work and living environment

Contemporary observers thought that by the 1830s, the social position of the factory girls had been degraded considerably in France and England. In her autobiography, Harriet Hanson Robinson (who worked in the Lowell mills from 1834 to 1848) suggests that "It was to overcome this prejudice that such high wages had been offered to women that they might be induced to become mill girls, in spite of the opprobrium that still clung to this degrading occupation...."[7] However, in letters written by Mary A. Paul she states that "I expect to be paid about two dollars a week but it will be dearly earned .24" and spends a whole letter discussing the decrease in wages that happened in 1846.[8]

Factory conditions

The Lowell System combined large-scale mechanization with an attempt to improve the stature of its female workforce and workers. A few girls who came with their mothers or older sisters were as young as ten years old, some were middle-aged, but the average age was about 24.[5] The very young girls of ages 10–15 were often called "doffers" as they would take off the full bobbins and replaced them otherwise known as doffing.[9] Usually hired for contracts of one year (the average stay was about four years), new employees were given assorted tasks as spare hands and paid a fixed daily wage while more experienced loom operators would be paid by the piece. They were paired with more experienced women, who trained them in the ways of the factory.[4]

Conditions in the Lowell mills were severe and grueling by modern American labor standards. Employees worked long and brutal hours from 5:00 am until 7:00 pm, for an average 73 hours per week.[4][5] Even the young girls or "doffers" were forced to work for on average 14 hours a day.[9] Typically only having a half hour for breakfast and three quarters of an hour for lunch each day.[8] As well the fact that these women had to work for roughly 8 to 10 months of the year.[9] Each room usually had 80 women working at machines, with two male overseers managing the operation. The noise of the machines was described by one worker as "something frightful and infernal", and although the rooms were hot, windows were often kept closed during the summer so that conditions for thread work remained optimal. The air, meanwhile, was filled with particles of thread and cloth. The mill buildings had minimal safety regulations, which threatened the health and wellbeing of every employee. Without regulations, many buildings had unstable building structures and limited ventilation, hazardous machinery, and overcrowding of rooms. Women seeking independence were soon facing life-threatening working conditions that were anything but fair.[10][11]

Charles Dickens visited in 1842, and remarked favorably on the conditions: "I cannot recall or separate one young face that gave me a painful impression; not one young girl whom, assuming it to be a matter of necessity that she should gain her daily bread by the labour of her hands, I would have removed from those works if I had had the power."[12] English social theorist Harriet Martineau visited in 1844 with Ralph Waldo Emerson, and her reflection echoed these affirmative sentiments: "I saw no signs of weariness among any of them. There they sat, row behind row...all wakeful and interested, all well-dressed and ladylike."[13] However, there was concern among many workers that foreign visitors were being presented with a sanitized view of the mills, by textile corporations who were trading on the image of the 'literary operative' to mask the grim realities of factory life. "Very pretty picture," wrote an operative named Juliana in the Voice of Industry, responding to a rosy account of life and learning in the mills, "but we who work in the factory know the sober reality to be quite another thing altogether." The "sober reality" was twelve to fourteen hours of dreary, exhausting work, which many workers experienced as hostile to intellectual development.[14]

Living quarters

The investors or factory owners built hundreds of boarding houses near the mills, where textile workers lived year-round. A curfew of 10:00 pm was common, and men were generally not allowed inside. About 26 women lived in each boarding house, with up to six sharing a bedroom.[4] One worker described her quarters as "a small, comfortless, half-ventilated apartment containing some half a dozen occupants".[15] Life in these boarding houses was typically strict. The houses were often run by widows who kept a close eye on the workers and made church attendance mandatory for all of the girls.[16]

Trips away from the boarding house were uncommon; the Lowell girls worked and ate together. However, half-days and short paid vacations were possible due to the nature of the piece-work; one girl would work the machines of another in addition to her own such that no wages would be lost. These close quarters fostered community as well as resentment. Newcomers were mentored by older women in areas such as dress, speech, behavior, and the general ways of the community. The women became very close with one another due to the extensive time they spent together both during work and after work when they would engage in cultural activities, such as music and literature.[16]

Workers often recruited their friends or relatives to the factories, creating a familial atmosphere among many of the rank and file.[4] The Lowell girls were expected to attend church and demonstrate morals befitting proper society. The 1848 Handbook to Lowell noted that the company would "not employ anyone who is habitually absent from public worship on the Sabbath, or known to be guilty of immorality".[17]

Working-class intellectual culture

As for many young women, the allure of Lowell was in the opportunities afforded for further study and learning. Most had already completed some measure of formal education and were resolutely bent on self-improvement. Upon their arrival, they found a vibrant, lively working-class intellectual culture: workers read voraciously in Lowell's city library and reading rooms and subscribed to the large, informal "circulating libraries" which trafficked in novels. Many even pursued literary composition. Defying factory rules, operatives would affix verses to their spinning frames, "to train their memories", and pin-up mathematical problems in the rooms where they worked. In the evenings, many enrolled in courses offered by the mills and attended public lectures at the Lyceum, a theatre built at company expense (offering 25 lectures per season for 25 cents). The Voice of Industry is alive with notices for upcoming lectures, courses, and meetings on topics ranging from astronomy to music. ("Lectures and Learning", Voice of Industry)

The corporations happily publicized the efforts of these "literary mill girls", boasting that they were the "most superior class of factory operative", impressing foreign visitors. But this masked the bitter opposition of many workers to the 12–14 hours of exhausting, monotonous work, which they saw was corrosive to their desire to learn. As one operative asked in the Voice, "who, after thirteen hours of steady application to monotonous work, can sit down and apply her mind to deep and long-continued thought?" Another Lowell operative expressed a similar view: "I well remember the chagrin I often felt when attending lectures, to find myself unable to keep awake...I am sure few possessed a more ardent desire for knowledge than I did, but such was the effect of the long hour system, that my chief delight was, after the evening meal, to place my aching feet in an easy position, and read a novel."[18]

The Lowell Offering

Cover of The Lowell Offering, Series 1, Number 1 (1840)

In October 1840, the Reverend Abel Charles Thomas of the First Universalist Church organized a monthly publication by and for the Lowell girls. As the magazine grew in popularity, women contributed poems, ballads, essays, and fiction – often using their characters to report on conditions and situations in their lives.[4]

The "Offering"s contents were by turns serious and farcical. In a letter in the first issue, "A Letter about Old Maids", the author suggested that "sisters, spinsters, lay-nuns, & c" were an essential component of God's "wise design".[19] Later issues – particularly in the wake of labor unrest in the factories – included an article about the value of organizing and an essay about suicide among the Lowell girls.[20]

Strikes of 1834 and 1836

The initial effort of the investors and managers to recruit female textile workers brought generous wages for the time (three to five dollars per week), but with the economic depression of the early 1830s, the Board of Directors proposed a reduction in wages. This, in turn, led to organized "turn-outs" or strikes.

In February 1834, the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills requested a 15% wage reduction, to go into effect on March 1. After a series of meetings, the female textile workers organized a "turn-out" or strike. The women involved in "turn-out" immediately withdrew their savings, causing "a run" on two local banks.[21]

The strike failed and within days the protesters had all returned to work at reduced pay or left town, but the "turn-out" or strike was an indication of the determination among the Lowell female textile workers to take labor action. This dismayed the agents of the factories, who portrayed the turnout as a betrayal of femininity. William Austin, agent of the Lawrence Manufacturing Company, wrote to his Board of Directors, "notwithstanding the friendly and disinterested advice which has been on all proper occassions [sic] communicated to the girls of the Lawrence mills a spirit of evil omen  ... has prevailed, and overcome the judgment and discretion of too many".[4]

Again, in response to severe economic depression and the high costs of living, in January 1836, the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills absorbed an increase in the textile workers' rent to help in the crisis faced by the company boarding housekeepers. As the economic calamity continued in October 1836, the Directors proposed an additional rent hike to be paid by the textile workers living in the company boarding houses.[22] The female textile workers responded immediately in protest by forming the Factory Girls' Association and organizing a "turn-out" or strike.

Harriet Hanson Robinson, an eleven-year-old doffer at the time of the strike, recalled in her memoirs: "One of the girls stood on a pump and gave vent to the feelings of her companions in a neat speech, declaring that it was their duty to resist all attempts at cutting down the wages. This was the first time a woman had spoken in public in Lowell, and the event caused surprise and consternation among her audience."[5]

This "turn-out" or strike attracted over 1,500 workers – nearly twice the number two years previously - causing Lowell's textile mills to run far below capacity.[4] Unlike the "turn-out" or strike in 1834, in 1836 there was enormous community support for the striking female textile workers. The proposed rent hike was seen as a violation of the written contract between the employers and the employees. The "turn-out" persisted for weeks and eventually, the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills rescinded the rent hike. Although the "turn-out" was a success, the weakness of the system was evident and worsened further in the Panic of 1837.

Lowell Female Labor Reform Association

1836 Constitution of the Lowell Factory Girls Association

The sense of community that arose from working and living together contributed directly to the energy and growth of the first union of women workers, the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association. Started by 12 operatives in January 1845, its membership grew to 500 within six months and continued to expand rapidly. The Association was run completely by the women themselves: they elected their own officers and held their own meetings; they helped organize the city's female workers and set up branches in other mill towns. They organized fairs, parties, and social gatherings. Unlike many middle-class women activists, the operatives found considerable support from working-class men who welcomed them into their reform organizations and advocated for their treatment as equals.

One of its first actions was to send petitions signed by thousands of textile workers to the Massachusetts General Court demanding a ten-hour workday. In response, the Massachusetts Legislature established a committee chaired by William Schouler, Representative from Lowell, to investigate and hold public hearings, during which workers testified about conditions in the factories and the physical demands of their twelve-hour days. These were the first investigations into labor conditions by a governmental body in the United States.[23] The 1845 Legislative Committee determined that it was not state legislature's responsibility to control the hours of work. The LFLRA called its chairman, William Schouler, a "tool"[4] and worked to defeat him in his next campaign for the State Legislature.[4] A complex election[24] Schouler lost to another Whig candidate over the issue of railroads. The impact of working men [Democrats] and working women [non-voting] was very limited. The next year Schouler was re-elected to the State Legislature.[25]

The Lowell female textile workers continued to petition the Massachusetts Legislature and legislative committee hearings became an annual event. Although the initial push for a ten-hour workday was unsuccessful, the LFLRA continued to grow, affiliating with the New England Workingmen's Association and publishing articles in that organization's Voice of Industry, a pro-labor newspaper.[4] This direct pressure forced the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills to reduce the workday by 30 minutes in 1847. The FLRA's organizing efforts spilled over into other nearby towns.[4] In 1847, New Hampshire became the first state to pass a law for a ten-hour workday, although there was no enforcement and workers were often requested to work longer days. By 1848, the LFLRA dissolved as a labor reform organization. Lowell textile workers continued to petition and pressure for improved working conditions,[4] and in 1853, the Lowell corporations reduced the workday to eleven hours.

The New England textile industry was rapidly expanding in the 1850s and 1860s. Unable to recruit enough Yankee women to fill all the new jobs, to supplement the workforce textile managers turned to survivors of the Great Irish Famine who had recently immigrated to the United States in large numbers. During the Civil War, many of Lowell's cotton mills closed, unable to acquire bales of raw cotton from the South. After the war, the textile mills reopened, recruiting French Canadian men and women. Although large numbers of Irish and French Canadian immigrants moved to Lowell to work in the textile mills, Yankee women still dominated the workforce until the mid-1880s.[26]

Political character of labor activity

The Lowell girls' organizing efforts were notable not only for the "unfeminine" participation of women, but also for the political framework used to appeal to the public. Framing their struggle for shorter workdays and better pay as a matter of rights and personal dignity, they sought to place themselves in the larger context of the American Revolution. During the 1834 "turn-out" or strike – they warned that "the oppressing hand of avarice would enslave us,"[4] the women included a poem which read:

Let oppression shrug her shoulders,
And a haughty tyrant frown,
And little upstart Ignorance,
In mockery look down.
Yet I value not the feeble threats
Of Tories in disguise,
While the flag of Independence
O'er our noble nation flies.[27]

In the 1836 strike, this theme returned in a protest song:

Oh! isn't it a pity, such a pretty girl as I
Should be sent to the factory to pine away and die?
Oh! I cannot be a slave, I will not be a slave,
For I'm so fond of liberty,
That I cannot be a slave.[27]

The most striking example of this political overtone can be found in a series of tracts published by the Female Labor Reform Association entitled Factory Tracts. In the first of these, subtitled "Factory Life As It Is", the author proclaims "that our rights cannot be trampled upon with impunity; that we WILL not longer submit to that arbitrary power which has for the last ten years been so abundantly exercised over us."[15]

This conceptualization of labor activity as philosophically linked with the American project in democracy has been instrumental for other labor organizing campaigns, as noted frequently by MIT professor and social critic Noam Chomsky,[28] who has cited this extended quote from the Lowell mill girls on the topic of wage slavery:

When you sell your product, you retain your person. But when you sell your labour, you sell yourself, losing the rights of free men and becoming vassals of mammoth establishments of a monied aristocracy that threatens annihilation to anyone who questions their right to enslave and oppress. Those who work in the mills ought to own them, not have the status of machines ruled by private despots who are entrenching monarchic principles on democratic soil as they drive downwards freedom and rights, civilization, health, morals and intellectuality in the new commercial feudalism.[29]

Notable people

See also

References

  1. ↑ Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice (25 January 2017). "What Was the Lowell System Used in the Lowell Mills?". History of Massachusetts Blog. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  2. 1 2 Bergquist, H. E. (January 1973). "The Boston Manufacturing Company and Anglo-American Relations 1807–1820". Business History. 15 (1): 45. doi:10.1080/00076797300000003.
  3. ↑ "The Myth of the Mill Girls". The Attic. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Dublin, Thomas (2019). "Women, Work, and Protest in the Early Lowell Mills: 'The Oppressing Hand of Avarice would Enslave Us'". The Working Class and its Culture. pp. 127–144. doi:10.4324/9781315050430-7. ISBN 978-1-315-05043-0.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Robinson, Harriet (1883). "Early Factory Labor in New England", Internet History Sourcebooks Project; retrieved on August 27, 2007.
  6. ↑ Lowell (Mass.). Trades and Labor Council,Lowell, A City of Spindles, retrieved on November 8, 2018,
  7. ↑ Robinson, Harriet. "THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARLY FACTORY GIRLS". Archived from the original on 29 May 2006.
  8. 1 2 https://www.albany.edu/history/history316/MaryPaulLetters.html
  9. 1 2 3 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ushistory1os2xmaster/chapter/primary-source-reading-lowell-mill-girls/
  10. ↑ "Working Conditions". American Antiquarian. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  11. ↑ "A Description of Factory Life by an Associationist in 1846" Archived 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Machine. Online at the Illinois Labor History Society Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
  12. ↑ Dickens, Charles (1842). American Notes. New York: The Modern Library. ISBN 0-679-60185-6.
  13. ↑ Martineau, Harriet (21 December 1844). "Mind Among the Spindles". Christian Register. 23 (51): 1.
  14. ↑ National Council for Historical Education, "New England Mill Girls," https://www.backstoryradio.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/02/Mill-Girls-Sources.pdf, accessed November 30, 2018
  15. 1 2 "An Operative" (1845). "Some of the Beauties of our Factory System – Otherwise, Lowell Slavery". In Factory Tracts. Factory Life As It Is, Number One. Lowell. Online at the Center for History and New Media; retrieved August 27, 2007.
  16. 1 2 "Rights of Women", The Voice of Industry,http://www.industrialrevolution.org/rights-of-women.html, accessed November 30, 2018.
  17. ↑ Hamilton Manufacturing Company (1848). "Factory Rules" in The Handbook to Lowell. Online at the Illinois Labor History Society Archived 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Machine; retrieved March 12, 2009.
  18. ↑ "Working Class Intellectual Culture", The Voice of Industry, retrieved November 8, 2018
  19. ↑ "Betsy" (1840). "A Letter about Old Maids". Lowell Offering. Series 1, No. 1. Online at the On-Line Digital Archive of Documents on Weaving and Related Topics. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
  20. ↑ Farley, Harriet (1844). "Editorial: Two Suicides". Lowell Offering. Series 4, No. 9. Online at Primary Sources: Workshops in American History. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
  21. ↑ Boston Transcript (1834). Online at "'Liberty Rhetoric' and Nineteenth-Century American Women" Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on August 27, 2007
  22. ↑ Faragher, John Mack, et al. Out Of Many. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Pearson Hall, 2006. Pg 346
  23. ↑ Zinn, Howard (1980). A People's History of the United States, p. 225. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 0-06-092643-0.
  24. ↑ Wallis, W. D. (2014-10-08). The Mathematics of Elections and Voting. ISBN 9783319098104.
  25. ↑ Charles Cowley, Illustrated History of Lowell. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868
  26. ↑ Robert G. Layer, Earnings of Cotton Mill Operatives, 1825-1914. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1955.
  27. 1 2 Quoted in "'Liberty Rhetoric' and Nineteenth-Century American Women" Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
  28. ↑ See, for example, Activism, Anarchy, and Power. Interview by Harry Kreisler. 22 March 2002.
  29. ↑ "Chomsky quoting Lowell Mill Girls" from p. 29, Chomsky on Democracy and Education, edited by C.P. Otero

Further reading

  • Alcott, Kate. “The Daring Ladies of Lowell” (Anchor Books, 2014). Historical fiction based the actual murder of a mill girl and the subsequent trial in 1833.
  • Cook, Sylvia Jenkins. "'Oh Dear! How the Factory Girls Do Rig Up!': Lowell's Self-Fashioning Workingwomen," New England Quarterly (2010) 83#2 pp. 219–249 in JSTOR
  • Dublin, Thomas. "Lowell Millhands" in Transforming Women's Work: New England Lives in the Industrial Revolution (1994) pp 77–118.
  • Dublin, Thomas (2019). "Women, Work, and Protest in the Early Lowell Mills: 'The Oppressing Hand of Avarice would Enslave Us'". The Working Class and its Culture. pp. 127–144. doi:10.4324/9781315050430-7. ISBN 978-1-315-05043-0.
  • Mrozowski, Stephen A. et al. eds. Living on the Boott: Historical Archeology at the Boott Mills Boardinghouses, Lowell, Massachusetts (University of Massachusetts Press, 1996)
  • Ranta, Judith A. Women and Children of the Mills: An Annotated Guide to Nineteenth-Century American Textile Factory Literature (Greenwood Press, 1999),
  • Zonderman, David A. Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, 1815–1850 (Oxford University Press, 1992)
  • Kirschbaum, S. (March 2005). "'Mill Girls' and Labor Movements: Integrating Women's History into Early Industrialization Studies". OAH Magazine of History. 19 (2): 42–46. doi:10.1093/maghis/19.2.42. ProQuest 213748603.

Primary sources

  • Eisler, Benita (1998). The Lowell Offering: Writings by New England Mill Women (1840–1845). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31685-8.
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