Macro-Gunwinyguan
Arnhem
Geographic
distribution
northern Australia
Linguistic classificationMacro-Pama–Nyungan?
  • Macro-Gunwinyguan
Subdivisions
Glottologgunw1250  (Gunwinyguan)
mani1293  (Maningrida)
mang1423  (Mangarrayi-Maran)
kung1259  (Kungarakany)
gaga1251  (Gaagudju)
The Arnhem languages (purple), and other non-Pama–Nyungan languages (grey). Below (closeup): the individual families.

 

The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.

Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.

Languages

Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs.[1] The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:[2]

This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages.)

Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).[3][4]

Heath (1990)[5] demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).[6][7]

However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.[2]) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:

Kungarakany, Mangarrayi, Marra, Maningrida, Ngalakgan, Bininj Kunwok (Gunwinggu), Warndarrang, Uwinymil, Gaagudju, Dalabon, Kunbarlang, Rembarrnga, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Warray, Ngandi

*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.

Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.

External classification

Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.[8]

In 2003, he proposed that they are also related to the Eastern Daly languages.[9]

Vocabulary

Capell (1940) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:[10]

gloss GunwingguGunbarlangNgaɖi
man biniṉgiɖimargŋarga
woman muli‘muliŋbaramimbaṉgandar
head gungɔidjgɔidjgɔidjwaːlu
eye gunminwumumilba
nose gungɛbwumɛːlimulju
mouth gundaŋdjaːɖɛɽlira
tongue gundjɛnŋaːgdjälaṉ
stomach gunjanmugmaɳɖidjaːla
bone gunmuruŋgɛːgɛggidji
blood gungulbamoɭobindjugän
kangaroo gɔɳɔbɔlɔgoːindjädji
opossum djɛːbuigundärbudjaŋana
emu gurugaijumaɳɖɛb
crow waːgdjidaːwundjäŋilga
fly bɔːdmogŋurin
sun gunduŋgaːnagbɽaŋu
moon diːdwuranajagan
fire gunɽagwiɖidjwaɭu
smoke gundɔlŋwungawugundjuru
water gunɽɔinnjunjugŋaba


Capell (1942) lists the following additional basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:[11]

glossSouthern GunwingguMuralidbanAndiljaugwaNunggubuyuWandarangNgandiRainbarngoBuanGundangbon
man bininbininnanamamaljanawarinjuŋnawaɽijinijulbiːjawurinbiji
woman dalugŋalwareːrulgwudáriŋgaŋaramaninjuŋŋiwoibinamanaŋdiŋ‘giɖigiɖgirigidj
head gungoidjgungoidanariŋgajinagwugululugulaŋdjaragɔidjgɔidj
eye gunmiːmgunmiːmmeːnbabagaɭamamaguɽmaŋandjulagaindjuljamïmïmumu
nose gungəbgungəbamindajɔmɔːrwundjíribagwijibangiːjadjɛːdjɛː
mouth gundaŋgundaŋadiraɽamadanwuŋaːndalgudaguladiːjälŋdaːləːdalugaɽa‘
tongue gundjengundjenaljäljigbalaːnwudjijilgudälŋdiːjälŋdɛldjɛn
stomach gunjamgunmelemmulgwaŋuɖanwuŋandjamowaragiːnaguːŋu‘
bone gunmuruŋgunmuruŋadidiraŋagaɽawuŋaɽagaguŋaɽagabalmanamɔːmɔː
blood gungulbagungulbameːrawulaŋmaŋulidjimabaɳgogulbanaguraidjgulba
kangaroo goɳobologundagijuburádaŋargọmulbiamulbiabulaidj-bulaidjguiṉguiṉ
opossum djɛːbuidurijuguŋbajirgiajirginaɖawamarŋoduguladugula
emu gurugaijuwajinŋiwuruganawurbanŋuroɖoŋuroɖo
crow waːgwaːgjiŋwawɔːwagwaɽgwaɽgawa‘wawa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘
fly bɔːdbɔːdjuwamaamunawamunabɔdbuadmɔɽbɔːd
sun gunduŋŋalbɛnbemamaːwuraaɭirŋinguŋarumawaɭirmudawalirbɛbagar
moon diːɖdiːɖjimaːwuralabamanadaŋadaŋanigurŋagurŋadiɖgurŋa
fire gunaggunagaŋuɽaŋuɽawuŋamburgudaŋiŋuɽamimälmimäl
smoke gundɔlŋgundɔlŋaŋwarawuŋubanwundulargubándɔːɭŋdɔlgnɔdjunör
water gogogunɽɔːṉaguŋwaagogowuŋaladjagujärgdjulawaːwaː


Proto-language

Proto-Gunwinyguan
Reconstruction ofGunwinyguan languages

Below are some reconstructed Proto-Gunwinyguan (i.e., Proto-Gunwinyguan proper) animal and plant names from Harvey (2003):[12]

Proto-Gunwinyguan animal names
no.glossProto-Gunwinyguan
8gudgeon sp.*cakorlk
10centipede*calarr
18death adder*campVn/rn
26frill-necked lizard*cangkurr
31quoll*cappo
32long-horned grasshopper*cappurtenyqrteny
35crayfish*carla
38jabiru*carnarran
39whimbrel*carnpalcarnpal
42water goanna*carrkka
44female agile wallaby*carrurtrtu
49green tree frog*catngerecngerec
53koel*cawok
70rifle fish*cetperte
77willy wagtail*cikirricikirric
80whistleduck*cilikuypi
96quail*cirrirnrti(t)
102bony bream*cirrpili
103whistleduck*cirrpiyuk
105scorpion*co(wo)c
107hornet*cokparl
108carpet snake*cokpiny
121nail-tailed wallaby*cotet
127water goanna*cucca
128female black wallaby*cukerre
138bowerbird*curerrk
139kingfisher sp.*curk
142black-headed python*curn
143rock wallaby*curnrtupolq
145taipan*currang
148tawny frogmouth, owl sp.*currul
152kangaroo rat*Cakot
154fishtail palm*Calmarr
173tawny frogmouth*Cawarl
178willy wagtail*Ciningkirric
215jabiru*kanci
230bony bream*karlarlppa
232Long Tom fish*karlerrq
237black cockatoo*karnamarr
238black flying fox*karnampal
239emu, large feathers on emu*karnanganyca
241big bandicoot*karnma
249dingo*karnrteken
253black cockatoo*karrak
255spoonbill*karral/rla
264goshawk*karrkkany
275dingo*kawirVq
276nankeen night heron*kawk
277friarbird*kaworlk
336kookaburra*korrowkkorrow
344echidna*kowarrang
347freshwater crocodile*koyow
353emu*kulppiny
359tawny frogmouth*kuluyqkuluy
364blue-tongue lizard*kungar(l)ak
369black-headed python*kunungu
374paperbark sp.*kurlkurl
378ibis sp.*kurnrtirnrtirn
384blue-tongue lizard*kurri
385blue-tongue lizard*kurrmul/rlu
388olive python*kurrucartu
405saltwater crocodile*kVngV
408kookaburra*kVrVwVk
417sugar glider*Lampalk
433spotted bream*Leppal
442black cockatoo*Lirrapin
448butcherbird*Lopolopo
464black-headed python*maccurn
467pelican*makkakkurr
485echidna*manappurn
495centipede*marla
511water goanna*marrampal
523friarbird*martawk
528barramundi*martpiny
530barramundi*martukkal
561blue-tongue lizard*milqtarl
570barramundi*mirricci
586blue-tongue lizard*morlel
598rainbow serpent*muc
617spoonbill*muqmu
625flying fox*murru
637frogmouth*Na-cik
639barramundi*Namarnkorl
644black flying fox*Nangamung
645saltwater crocodile*Nangkurru
664grey-crowned babbler*ngakngak
667white corella*ngalelek
684white cockatoo*ngarrac
685saratoga*ngarrayarl
687short-necked turtle*ngart
690rifle fish*ngatpan
702white cockatoo*ngerrk
756tree rat; quoll*pakkaci
801spotted nightjar*parnangka
807kookaburra*parraca
808darter (bird sp.)*parrakparrak
812black wallaroo*parrk
820march fly*partrti
824pelican*paya
827file snake*pekka
831gecko spp.*pelerrk
839bustard*penuk
845plover*perrepperrep
846rainbow bee-eater*perrertperrert
847masked plover*pettelerrelerre
850file snake*piccirri
856galah*pilkpilk
866barramundi*pirlmu
873glossy ibis*pirnrtu
887archer fish*poccalk
904water python*porlokko
906brolga*pornorrong
915velvet-tailed gecko*poywek
923pheasant*pukpuk
932ghost bat*pumapuma
934file snake*punupun
941water goanna*purarr
954water python*purrurtci
963red-eyed pigeon*rakul
976Torresian imperial pigeon*rumuq
981sand goanna*Talak
997black cockatoo*Tarrapiya
1009plover*Tetterran
1012dollar bird*Tewtew
1020peewee*Tirlkrtirlk
1024moon; moon snake*Tirt
1025wedge-tailed eagle*Tiwana
1034rock wallaby*Torriya
1045ring-tailed possum*Tukula
1049bony bream*Tulukkurr
1067green tree frog*thakparrarraq
1093Long Tom fish*thumpi
1097bandicoot*thungkaq
1100king brown snake*T(h)atpe
1115crow*wakwak
1123bustard*walppurrungku
1171butcherbird*warrkcirt
1196rainbow fish*werec
1206possum*wirik
1216bird sp.; rainbow bee-eater; kingfisher; whipbirds*wirritwirrit
1217black-faced cuckooshrike*wirriwirriyak
1231cockroach*wor(o)cwor(o)c
1244possum sp.*wumpu
1274yabby*yarr
1291bird sp.; mopoke; kite*yerr/riny
1303water rat*yirrkkup
1314lightning; rain; Leichhardt's grasshopper [seen in wet season]*yurr
Proto-Gunwinyguan plant names
no.glossProto-Gunwinyguan
2Grevillea pteridifolia*caca ~ *yacca
12spinifex*calng
30wattle sp.*capec
36king brown snake*carlung
40banyan*carnqpa
54water lily stem*cawqcaw
60Grevillea sp.*cenkererr
63milkwood*cenycok
67pandanus mat*cerrpe
82Capparis umbonata*ciliwirn
85Pandanus aquaticus*cimcim
93mistletoe*cirnirrin/ny
141lancewood*curluq
223ironwood*kappay
235freshwater mangrove*karlngka/iny
236wattle sp., woomera type*karlppu
244Acacia sp.*karnpirr
258spinifex sp.*karrarnrtalk
278tree sp., Gardenia megasperma, Capparis umbonata*kayapam
321plant sp., bush potato*kongkong
329Planchonia careya*korlq
334pandanus husk*korrmo
341paperbark*kot
345paperbark humpy, bark of stringybark*kowk
377black plum*kurnrtalq
379Flacourtia territorialis*kurnrtun/rn
398Terminalia grandiflora*kutt/rtrtu
402Banksia dentata*kuypuk
431Opilia amentacea*Leklek
461wild passionfruit*ma(rt)rtawk
482Canthium lucidum*mamtak
513palm sp., Cycas media*marrappi
527eucalyptus sp.*martpa
529paperbark, deep coolamon*martu
576nut of pandanus*moc
599coolibah*muccu
602paperbark sp.*mul/rlmu
604conkerberry*mululuk
607ironwood*mulyurruny
627black currant*murrungkurn
677eucalyptus sp.*ngapak
689cycad*ngaththu
704black currant*ngik
708pandanus sp.*ngokngo
711river red gum*ngolongkoq
776Ficus opposita*pampul/rla
802Owenia vernicosa*parnarr
825green plum*pe/irrke/iq
826quinine tree*pecca
843eucalyptus sp.*pernpern
865Acacia holosericea*pirliwirli
880tea tree*pirtippirti
896Dalabon*pon
898wattle sp.*pongka
925paperbark sp.*pul(p)pul
935clump of bamboo; Bambusa arnhemica*-puny
953Cassytha filiformis*purrurnpurrurn
955Xanthostemon paradoxus*purt/lu
958tree sp. - Brachychiton diversifolium*putput
962paperbark*rakkalaq
971pandanus*rok
977ridge; blacksoil area; grass used in corroborees*ruwurr
999Phragmites*Tarrin
1058Leichhardt tree*Tupal
1089quinine brush*thorrowq
1091Acacia holosericea*thukkul
1095Canthium attenuatum, Exocarpos latifolius*thumuk
1096bloodwood*thumurluk
1101pandanus*T(h)ayarr
1154vine sp. - Cynanchum pedunculatum*warnpek
1169plant sp.; Exocarpos latifolus; lemon grass*warrinycalan
1181Grevillea pteridifolia*watpar
1239black plum*wucal
1259pandanus*yakngarra

References

  1. Bowern, Claire and Harold Koch, 2004. Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, p 44
  2. 1 2 Green, Rebecca (2003). "Proto-Maningrida within Proto-Arnhem: evidence from verbal inflectional suffixes". In Nicholas Evans (ed.). The Non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia. Pacific Linguistics 552. Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 369–421. doi:10.15144/PL-552. hdl:1885/146725. ISBN 9780858835382.
  3. Sharpe, Margaret C. (2008). "Alawa and its Neighbours: Enigma Variations 1 and 2". In Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn; Miceli, Luisa (eds.). Morphology and Language History: In honour of Harold Koch. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 59–70. ISBN 9789027290960.
  4. N92 Alawa at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
  5. Heath, Jeffrey, 1990, A case of intensive lexical diffusion: Arnhem Land, Australia
  6. Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70. hdl:2123/8747
  7. Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
  8. McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
  9. Evans, Nicholas, 2003, The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia
  10. Capell, Arthur. 1940. The Classification of Languages in North and North-West Australia. Oceania 10(3): 241-272, 404-433. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1940.tb00292.x
  11. Capell, Arthur. 1941-1942, 1942-1943. Languages of Arnhem Land, North Australia. Oceania 12: 364-392, 13: 24-51.
  12. Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.), The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
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