May Howard Jackson
Born
May Howard

(1877-09-07)7 September 1877
Philadelphia, PA
Died12 July 1931(1931-07-12) (aged 53)
New York, NY
Resting placeWoodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, NY
NationalityAmerican
EducationPennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts
Known forSculpture
Notable work
Portrait Bust of Paul Lawrence Dunbar (1919)
  • Portrait Bust of Dean Kelly Miller (1922)
  • Mulatto Mother and Child (n.d.)
SpouseWilliam Sherman Jackson
AwardsHarmon Foundation, 1928

May Howard Jackson (September 7, 1877 – July 12, 1931) was an African American sculptor and artist. Active in the New Negro Movement and prominent in Washington, D.C.'s African American intellectual circle in the period 1910-30, she was known as "one of the first black sculptors to...deliberately use America's racial problems" as the theme of her art.[1] Her dignified portrayals of "mulatto" individuals as well as her own struggles with her multiracial identity continue to call for the interpretation and assessment of her work.

Early life

May Howard Jackson, Portrait Bust of an African, 1899. Kinsey African American Art & History Collection,

Education

May Howard was born to a middle class couple, Floarda Howard and Sallie (Durham) Howard, in Philadelphia on September 7, 1877.

She attended J. Liberty Tadd's Art School in Philadelphia, where she was trained with "new methods in education." Tadd, the school's founder, was an educational innovator who "emphasized the importance of visual arts training" to strengthen the brain, advocating an ambidextrous teaching model and six years of early-school art education. At Tadd's school May Howard studied "drawing, designing, free-hand drawing, working designs in monochrome, modeling, wood carving, and the use of tools".[2]

She continued her art training, with the support of a full scholarship, at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1895), as the first African American woman to attend PAFA,[3] studying under various known artists including the renowned American Impressionist William Merritt Chase, Paris-trained academic sculptor Charles Grafly, and John J. Boyle (who had been a student of former PAFA faculty member Thomas Eakins).[2] Her surviving work from this period expresses the Beaux-Arts aesthetic that emphasized naturalism and dynamic treatment of surface and form.[4]

Meta Warrick Fuller, Jackson's contemporary at Tadd's and PAFA[2] (like Howard, b. 1877), offered Jackson the opportunity to accompany her and study abroad in France during this time (Fuller herself had enrolled in classes at the École des Beaux Arts). Jackson declined. She would later declare she thought it unnecessary to travel to Europe to further her art.[5]

After four years of study at PAFA, Howard met and "married well" a mathematics teacher and future high school principal, William Sherman Jackson.[6]

M Street High School, Washington, DC (~1906)

Washington, D.C. and the M Street High School

By 1902, May and William were living in Washington D.C., where William was teaching at the M Street High School, the first public high school for African Americans in the United States, and, at that time, the premier preparatory academy in the nation for students of color.[7] The faculty at M Street High School were "arguably superior to the white public schools, whose teachers typically were graduates of normal schools and teacher colleges." Many M Street teachers (William included) were the pioneering alumni of American's top academic institutions, unable, post graduation, to find employment at college institutions.

Because of these circumstances, in the first decade of the new century, the M Street High School found itself center stage for the nation's debate about the future of Black education. On the one side, Booker T. Washington, former child slave, urged Black Americans to recognize that "the masses of us are to live by the productions of our hands... No race can prosper until it learns that there is as much dignity in the tilling of a field as in the writing of a poem," and worked for access to the vocational training that could elevate and secure colored peoples' place in the American economy. On the other side was Dr. W. E. B. Du Bois, the Massachusetts born, Harvard educated leader of the New Negro Movement and a central figure in the 1908 formation of the NAACP. Du Bois's recently published book of essays, The Souls of Black Folk (1903) had catalyzed the thinking of many African Americans, countering what Du Bois saw as Mr. Washington's "cult of submission"[8] with the contention that Black Americans must enjoy the "right to vote," "civic equality," and the education of their youth "according to ability."

For the M Street School, in competition with the nearby colored vocational school for the D.C. school department's support and resources, and straining to build the nation's first college preparatory program for colored students, Du Bois's final point here would prove a particularly contentious rallying call. Washington, approved to speak at the 1904 M Street Graduation,[7] recommended that Blacks focus on gaining "common school and industrial training," first and foremost. Principal Anna J. Cooper countered this by inviting Du Bois to deliver a speech at the M Street School, in the winter of 1903, opposing vocational education as an acceptable standard for Black Americans. The DC director of schools accused Dr. Cooper of insubordination and disloyalty.[9]

Cooper's tenure as Principal survived the accusations, but in 1906, she ceded her position to Jackson's husband William. May came on as faculty to teach Latin. William would step back from his role as Principal in 1909, but the couple's central role in maintaining the M Street High School's reputation for academic excellence through a difficult period left them with an invaluable social credential in Washington's Black community and beyond.[9]

Career

May Howard Jackson, The Brotherhood, Cover Image for The Crisis Journal (1919)

After Jackson's move to Washington, "she had expected to continue her studies at the art school connected with the Corcoran Art Gallery but was refused admission because of her color," a rejection that, for a time, discouraged her from pursuing public work in her field. She would later maintain that "It was chiefly through Dr. Du Bois's influence and urging that she again took up her work with the determination to make the most of her gifts for the encouragement it would be to her people."[10]

Du Bois not only personally encouraged her, but used her images to illustrate The Crisis, his newly established journal and, from 1910, the official magazine of the NAACP.

With this support, Jackson became "the first to break away from academic cosmopolitanism to frank and deliberate racialism" in her artwork.[11] This determination is evident from her best known surviving pieces: the dignified portrait busts she created of the period's black leaders "decent portraits of decent men", and her intimate family groupings of mothers—mixed race themselves—caressing children—their own children—of mixed racial heritage. For the next two decades, these works would be the headliners of her exhibited work.

Jackson arranged for Dr. Du Bois to sit for her in 1907. Although the in-person sessions were discontinued before her portrait bust was finished, Du Bois arranged for photographs to be sent from New York so she could bring the piece to successful completion.[12] Last, and perhaps most helpfully, Du Bois published news of her exhibitions and work in the pages of The Crisis, through to 1931 and the artist's early death.

Public exhibitions

In 1912, her portrait bust of Du Bois, among other works, was exhibited at the Veerhoff Gallery in Washington.[13] She received a positive review from The Washington Star commending the work's structure: "the expression is vital and good, the turn of surface, the intimation of mobility are well rendered."[14] The Star, reviewing her bust of Assistant Attorney General WIlliam H. Lewis, later that same fall, took the compliment further, "A portrait to deserve the name must be more than a likeness; it must interpret character; it must have personality. Of this bust as much can truly be said."[15]

Exhibiting a broader collection of sculptures at the Veerhoff in 1916, her Star review was again effusive: Jackson's "work has always shown promise, but these pieces now on exhibit indicate exceptional gift, for they are not merely well modeled, but individual and significant".[5]

As a woman defined by the color of her skin, finding public venues to display her work was a constant challenge. "It is not at all customary for Washington art stores to exhibit the works of colored artists," a contemporary reviewer observed, "particularly if the subjects are too colored, and the fact that Mrs. Jackson's work has been displayed, is evidence of her talent."[10]

In 1917, Jackson exhibited at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, from whose art school, she had been rejected, on a racial basis, on her arrival in DC fifteen years before. The event was written up in a brief newspaper piece ("First Recognition for the Race") that ran in papers across the United States as wide-spread as Omaha[16] and Salt Lake City.[17] "What is said to be the first recognition of colored talent by that institution is the exhibition in Corcoran Art Gallery, at Washington, D.C. of a child's head modeled by Mrs. May Howard Jackson."[18]

And then—the National Academy of Design, New York (1919)[19])

Segregated exhibitions

New Dunbar High School Building, 1917. "The Greatest Negro High School in the World"

Artists like Jackson responded to the lack of gallery support by pressing alternative public spaces into service, such as the "War Service and Recreation Center" of the Washington Y.M.C.A., where, in May 1919, a solo "exhibition of 25 sculptures of May Howard Johnson" was held.[20]

The M Street High School moved to new buildings and was renamed Dunbar School in 1916 for the noted African-American intellectual and poet, Paul Laurence Dunbar (d. 1906) (Jackson would complete a portrait in his honor, a casting of which, in bronze, would become the property of the school). The school's expansion brought new ambitions. Dunbar formed the Tanner Art League in 1919, and an attempt was made to institute an annual show for colored artists. The first show displayed the work of artists from fifteen states and included pieces from Laura Wheeler, Julian Abele, Meta Warrick Fuller, and recent work from Jackson ("a bust and statuette").[19] The Dunbar's 1922 show included works by William Edouard Scott and William McKnight Farrow, as well as the inaugural D.C. showing of Jackson's sculpture, The Brotherhood, which had "had a prominent place in a recent exhibition of the Society of Independent Sculptors at the Waldorf Astoria," along with others of her work.[21]

Teaching

In Washington, Jackson maintained a sculpture studio in her home. Aside from portrait sculpting, she continued to teach, with two years at Howard University as an art instructor for Howard's newly implemented School of art (1922-1924). At the university she taught and influenced James Porter, who went on to write one of the first comprehensive histories of African-American art.[5] As an art historian, though, Porter was not impressed by her work and said that there was "no great originality in any of the pieces she attempted."[22]

Recognition

With legal racial segregation in force across the South since the turn of the century, topics such as racial mixing were taboo in general. Laws against miscegenation had been proposed in both federal and state legislatures as far North as Massachusetts after Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected as President in 1912.[23]

Her work was recognized with a Harmon Foundation Award in 1928. Five works were exhibited in the subsequent Harmon show, two featuring as illustration in the exhibition catalogue ("Bust of Dean Kelly Miller" and "Head of a Negro Child"). Leslie King-Hammond, an art historian, later praised Jackson's "efforts to address...without compromise and without sentimentality, the issues of race and class, especially as they affected mulattos".[5]

Despite this recognition, Jackson was dissatisfied with her progress. 1929 she wrote, "I felt no satisfaction! Only deep sense of injustice, something that has followed me and my efforts all my life."[24]

Race

May Howard Jackson, Portrait of Mother and Child | Mulatto Mother and her Child (~1916)[25]

Jackson could "pass" for Caucasian, but the racial politics of the early 20th century created an environment that pushed her in a different direction. She cooperated with pioneering African American anthropologist Caroline Bond Day, providing details (including photos) regarding the Howard family's racial background that would later be published in Day's 1932 Harvard University Master's thesis, ""A Study of Some Negro-White Families in the United States"[26] (the year following Jackson's death)

Her personal experiences of racism were ongoing through her life and sour: whether her initial rejection from Corcoran Gallery or her experience with the National Academy of Design. After showings in 1916 and 1918, the Academy sent a representative to Jackson's home to ask if she was of "Negro blood"—and, on receiving an affirmative response, subsequently excluded her work from future exhibits.[5]

Jackson expressed a fascination with the wide variety of phenotypes among African Americans. This was expressed in "Shell-Baby in Bronze" (1914), "Head of a Negro Child" (1916), and "Mulatto Mother and Child" (1929) - the last piece in particular also an address of her own racial identity and "near Whiteness". These three pieces define her most original surviving work.

May Howard Jackson, Portrait of Paul Laurence Dunbar, bronze (1918)

Her style was provocative for its time because it explored the features of America's multiracial society. As a result of not traveling in Europe, Jackson was somewhat isolated from her peers and was able to create her own vision that infused her work with a unique style.[27] This style was ignored at first because it was so different from the popular style of the time. Though she had developed her own unique style, this style still adhered to academic tradition. Many galleries were not interested in her subject matter, as she dedicated most of her work to objective portraits of children, family members, and influential African Americans.[5] It was not until the inauguration of the Harmon Foundation Awards, in 1926, for "Distinguished Negro Contributions," that there was even a National prize for Black Artists.

Jackson's racial identity was questioned after her death. While many may have questioned her racial identity it definitely became clear as she was listed as one of the colored women in the March 13, 1913 woman's suffrage parade.[28]

Final years

The Harmon Foundation exhibits, intended to showcase the works of Black female artists in America, virtually coincided with events of the Great Depression. The period's dream of the "New Negro Woman," lost its focus, and Jackson's death, in 1931, brought a period of obscurity during which crucial early cataloguing of her work was neglected. Her "sensitive and humanistic approach to the portrayal of Black Folk types," was in some ways anathema to certain "Black art critics and historians," uncomfortable with its portrayal of racial ambiguity in a period when the "near-white" were granted privilege unavailable to the darker-skinned.[1]

Legacy

Jackson and her husband took in William's nephew Sargent Claude Johnson at age fifteen, following his parents' deaths (father, 1897, mother 1902). Johnson was one of six siblings, several of whom chose to live as white in their adulthood.[29] Johnson, who went on to become a well-known sculptor of the Harlem Renaissance himself, was first exposed to sculpture through his aunt's work and studio.

Jackson died in the year 1931, and is buried at the Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.[30] Du Bois memorialized her death in his closing notes to the October 1931 issue of The Crisis: "With her sensitive soul, she needed encouragement and contacts and delicate appreciation. Instead of this, she ran into the shadows of the Color Line... In the case of May Howard Jackson the contradictions and idiotic ramifications of the Color Line tore her soul asunder."[31]

Francis T. Moseley[32] was among the first to recognize the complex "daringly ventured to express in her work something of the social situation."

Jackson's contributions to American art were not widely appreciated until after her death, and a conclusive assessment of her work among "the Pantheon of great American Sculptors" remains to be determined. The African American Registry places her in the "annals of great American sculptors."[33]

She was an artist who pushed the boundaries of her time, unique in the body of her work and vision. Her "completely American" training, initially derided as a lost opportunity to study with European masters, is now seen as an element vital to her status as a woman, if not a sculptor, of "intense and lucid temperament."[34]

Exhibitions

Public exhibits

  • The Veerhoff Gallery, Washington D.C. (1912,[27] 1916[35])
  • The New York Emancipation Exhibition (1913)
  • The Corcoran Art Gallery (1915)[36]
  • The National Academy of Design (1916)
  • May Howard Jackson: 25 Sculptures. War Service and Recreation Center, Y.M.C.A., Washington, D.C. (May 1919)
  • Exhibit of Fine Arts by American Negro Artists, The Harmon Foundation, International House, New York (1929)[37]
  • An Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture by American Negro Artists at the National Gallery of Art (1929)[38]

Posthumous group

Catalogued work

May Howard Jackson, Bust of Kelly Miller, Dean, Howard University, College of Arts & Sciences, bronze (~1912)
  • Slave boy / Portrait Bust of an African (1899) bronze, Kinsey Family Collection[40]
  • Portrait Bust of Paul Lawrence Dunbar (Dunbar High School, Washington D.C.).[41]
  • Massachusetts Senator George Frisbie Hoar (1906)[42]
  • Portrait Bust of W. E. B. Du Bois (1912)
  • Assistant Attorney General WIlliam H. Lewis (1912)[15]
  • Morris Heights, New York City (1912) oil on linen, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts[43]
  • Portrait Bust of Dean Kelly Miller (1914) bronze, Howard University)[44]
  • Shell-baby, bronze (1915, exhibited 1929)[27][45]
  • Head of a Negro Child (1916).
  • William H. Lewis (bef 1919)
  • William Stanley Braitewait (bef 1919)[20]
  • Portrait Bust of Reverend Francis J. Grimke (1922)[46]
  • Suffer Little Children to Come Unto Me (n.d.)[34]
  • Bust of a Young Woman (n.d., plaster, held by Howard University)[47]
  • Mulatto Mother and her Child / Mother and Child, plaster ((exhibited 1918)
  • William Tecumsah Sherman Jackson (exhibited 1929)[37]
  • Negro Dancing Girl (exhibited 1929)[38]
  • Resurrection, exhibited 1929)[38]

Awards

References

  1. 1 2 Bontemps, Arna Alexander; Fonvielle-Bontemps, Jacqueline. "African American Women Artists: An Historical Perspective". Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women. IV (1 (Spring 1987)): 17–24.
  2. 1 2 3 Farrington, Lisa E. (2014-08-04). "May Howard Jackson, Beulah Ecton Woodard, and Selma Burke". In Kirschze, Amy Helene (ed.). Women Artists of the Harlem Renaissance. Jackson: Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-62674-207-9.
  3. ↑ "PAFA Acquires Landscape Painting by May Howard Jackson, First African American Woman to Attend the Philadelphia Art School". 22 July 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  4. ↑ Tolles, Thayer (October 2004). "From Model to Monument: American Public Sculpture, 1865–1915". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Farrington, Lisa (2005). Creating their own image : the history of African-American women artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-19-976760-1. OCLC 712600445.
  6. ↑ Bontemps, Arna Alexander; Fonvielle-Bontemps, Jacqueline (1996). "African American Women Artists: An Historical Perspective". The Harlem Renaissance, 1920-1940: Analysis and Assessment, 1980-1994. New York: Garland Publishing. pp. Reprint, Original publication cited above (Bontemps. "African American Women Artists: An Historical Perspective". Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women. IV, no. 1). ISBN 978-0-8153-2218-4.
  7. 1 2 Stewart, Alison; Harris-Perry, Melissa (2013-08-01). First Class: The Legacy of Dunbar, America's First Black Public High School. Chicago Review Press. pp. 3, 54. ISBN 978-1-61374-012-5.
  8. ↑ Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1903). The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches. A. C. McClurg & Company. pp. 43, 53–54. ISBN 9780527253301.
  9. 1 2 Robinson, Henry S. (1984). "The M Street High School, 1891-1916". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 51: 123, 124. ISSN 0897-9049. JSTOR 40067848.
  10. 1 2 La Follette, Belle Case; Hunt, Caroline L. (June 1912). Home and Education: Women of the Hour. Vol. IV, No. 25. Madison, Wisconsin: Robert M. La Follette Company. p. 10. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Locke, Alain (2021-06-08). "The American Negro as Artist (1931)". In Gates, Henry Louis; Jarrett, Gene Andrew (eds.). The New Negro: Readings on Race, Representation, and African American Culture, 1892-1938. Princeton University Press. p. 543. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1j6675s.112. ISBN 978-1-4008-2787-9. JSTOR j.ctv1j6675s. S2CID 236278802.
  12. ↑ "Letter from W. E. B. Du Bois to May Howard Jackson, May 2, 1907". credo.library.umass.edu. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  13. ↑ "Franklin's paper the statesman., August 17, 1912, Page 4".
  14. ↑ "Along the Color Line". The Crisis. Vol. !V, No. 4. The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc. August 1912. p. 169.
  15. 1 2 "News and Notes of Art and Artists". Evening Star. 23 Nov 1912. pp. Page 9.
  16. ↑ "MRS. JACKSON, SCULPTRESS: Work of a Colored Woman Exhibited at Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington. First Recognition for the Race". The Monitor. Omaha, Nebraska. National Endowment for the Humanities. 1917-03-17. ISSN 2768-5535. Retrieved 2022-04-08.
  17. ↑ Humanities (1917-03-24). "MRS. JACKSON, SCULPTRESS: Work of a Colored Woman Exhibited at Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington. First Recognition for the Race". The Broad Ax. Salt Lake City, Utah. National Endowment for the Humanities. ISSN 2163-7202. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
  18. ↑ "The Alliance Herald". ed (STOCKMEN'S ed.). 29 March 1917. p. 5. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  19. 1 2 "Notes". The American Magazine of Art. 10 (9): 352. 1919. ISSN 2151-254X. JSTOR 23925595.
  20. 1 2 "Sculptures by Mrs. Jackson". American Art News. 17 (31): 1–10. 1919. ISSN 1944-0227. JSTOR 25589473.
  21. ↑ "Art Objects Exhibit at Dunbar High School". The Evening star. Washington, D.C. 1922-04-30. p. 5. ISSN 2331-9968. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
  22. ↑ Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance. 2012. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-135-45537-8.
  23. ↑ Miletsky, Zebulon (2016). "The Dilemma of Interracial Marriage". Historical Journal of Massachusetts. 44 (1, Winter 2016): 138.
  24. ↑ Farrington, Lisa E. (2005). Creating Their Own Image: The History of African-American Women Artists. Oxford University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-19-516721-4.
  25. ↑ "A story in clay". The Crisis. October 1916. pp. 278–179.
  26. ↑ Day, Caroline Bond (1932). "(1932). A Study of Some Negro-White Families in the United States. ". Varia Africana. African Department of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. V: 42–3.
  27. 1 2 3 Rubinstein, Charlotte Streifer (1990). American Women Sculptors: A History of Women Working in Three Dimensions. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. pp. 204–5. ISBN 978-0-8161-8732-4.
  28. ↑ Dubois, William Edward Burghardt (1913). Suffrage Paraders.
  29. ↑ "Sargent Johnson". americanart.si.edu. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved 2022-01-15.
  30. ↑ "Women's History". www.woodlawn.org. Woodlawn Cemetery • Crematory • Conservancy. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
  31. ↑ Du Bois, W. E. B. (October 1931). "Postscript: May Howard Jackson". The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races. New York: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. 20th Annual Children's Number: 351.
  32. ↑ Moseley, Francis T. (21 Jul 1940). "Negro Art--1851 to the Present". Sunday Chicago Bee. ) 1925-19??, July 21, 1940, SECTION TWO, Image 16. Chicago, Ill. National Endowment for the Humanities. p. 16. ISSN 2769-4682. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
  33. ↑ "A great sculptor ahead of her time, May Jackson". African American Registry. Retrieved 2020-05-03.
  34. 1 2 Porter, James A. (1942). "Four Problems in the History of Negro Art". The Journal of Negro History. 27 (1): 33–34. doi:10.2307/2715087. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2715087. S2CID 146888246.
  35. ↑ "Along the Color Line: Music and Art". The Crisis. New York: The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc. 1916. pp. 114–5.
  36. ↑ Hammond, Lily Hardy (1922). In the Vanguard of a Race. New York: Council of Women for Home Missions and Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada. pp. x.
  37. 1 2 Exhibit of Fine Arts by American Negro Artists. New York: International House. 1929. p. 10. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  38. 1 2 3 Catalogue of an Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture by American Negro Artists at the National Gallery of Art. Smithsonian Institution Archives Record Unit 311, National Collection of Fine Arts, SIA-SIA2016-011412.: Harmon Foundation. 1929.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  39. ↑ King-Hammond, Leslie (1996). 3 generations of African American women sculptors: a study in paradox (Exhibition Catalogue). Philadelphia: Afro-American Historical and Cultural Museum (Philadelphia, PA), in collaboration with the Equitable Gallery (New York, N.Y.), the Museum of African-American Life and Culture (Dallas, Tex.), and the California Afro-American Museum (Los Angeles, CA). ISBN 978-0-9652110-0-0. OCLC 35706071.
  40. ↑ Jackson, May Howard (1899). "Portrait Bust of an African". The Kinsey African American Art & History Collection. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
  41. ↑ https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/e3/88/13/e3881301f8d9b25b009405ac8215d67b.jpg
  42. ↑ "Art & Artists". Metropolitan Section. The Washington Times. 22 Jul 1906. p. 9.
  43. ↑ Jackson, May Howard (1912). ""Morris Heights, N.Y. City"". PAFA - Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Oil on linen, 12 1/4 x 16 in. (31.115 x 40.64 cm.). Retrieved 2022-01-16.
  44. ↑ "Artists You May or May Not Know :)". Pinterest. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
  45. ↑ "News and Notes of Art and Artists". Evening Star. 23 January 1915. p. 13.
  46. ↑ Woodson, Carter G., ed. (1942). The Works of Francis J. Grimke. Vol. IV: Letters. Washington, D.C.: Associated publishers, Incorporated. p. 346.
  47. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2015-12-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

Further reading

  • Farrington, Lisa E. (2005). Creating their own image: history of African American Women Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 71–75. ISBN 978-0-19-976760-1. OCLC 712600445.
  • Kirschke, Amy Helene (2014). Women Artists of the Harlem Renaissance. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-62846-033-9. OCLC 861671304.
  • Heller, Jules (1995). North American Women Artists of the Twentieth Century. Garland Publishing, Inc. pp. 280. ISBN 978-0-8240-6049-7.

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