Metarhizium flavoviride
Unidentified leafhopper (Cicadellidae) infected with M. flavoviride: Atewa forest, Ghana (2008)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Sordariomycetes
Order: Hypocreales
Family: Clavicipitaceae
Genus: Metarhizium
Species:
M. flavoviride
Binomial name
Metarhizium flavoviride
Gams & Roszypal, 1973

Metarhizium flavoviride is a Sordariomycete in the order Hypocreales and family Clavicipitaceae.[1] The genus Metarhizium currently consists of 45 described species and are a group of fungal isolates that are known to be virulent against Hemiptera and some Coleoptera. M. flavoviride is described as its own species, but there also exists a variety of M. flavoviride, which is M. flavoviride var. flavoviride.[2][3] Previously described varieties of M. flavoviride have been documented, however recent random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have assigned these varieties as new species.[2] The reassigned species are as follows: M. flavoviride Type E is now M. brasiliense; M. flavoviride var. minus is now M. minus; M. flavoviride var. novozealandicum is now M. novozealandicum; and M. flavoviride var. pemphigi is now M. pemphigi.[2][3]

All species in the Metarhizium genus are entomopathogenic, infecting a variety of hosts ranging from those in the orders Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. Hosts are often agriculturally important pests.[2][4][5][6] Historically, species in the Metarhizium genus have been distinguished from each other by morphological traits such as differences in conidial shape, color, and conidiogenous cells. These taxonomic morphological differences are mostly substantiated by allozyme analyses.[7][8][9] However, recent studies indicate that using morphological characteristics is not an accurate method to distinguish between different Metarhizium species and their respective varieties, and instead, molecular and genetic techniques should be used.[2][3][9]

M. flavoviride is mainly studied for its use as a biological control to reduce pesticide resistance in plants where hosts feed on, as well as to reduce the environmental impact of using pesticides on agricultural crops.[10][11]

As with other Metarhizium species, there has been interest in developing isolates into mycoinsecticides: with work carried out on rice insect pests during the 1970–80s.[12] However, such isolates appear to be more difficult to mass-produce, so there has been less commercial activity than with other Metarhizium species. In light of new molecular techniques, we now know that references to this species for control of locusts (e.g. in early LUBILOSA Programme literature) should apply to Metarhizium acridum.

Description

M. flavoviride conidia (spores) range in color from vibrant green to light grey-green.[1][4][13] Conidiogenous cells are 7–11 μm long and clavate, broadly ellipsoid, or ovoid. Conidia are relatively slow to develop.[4][1]

Distribution and habitat

Metarhizium species and M. flavoviride have been isolated from multiple soil types from all types of climates across all continents (excluding Antarctica) and have been found to infect many different arthropods.[2] M. flavoviride has been found in a wide range of soils, particularly in agricultural habitats; they are often found in soils associated with roots of plants where host pests feed on.[2][5][14] Some data have supported the finding that undisturbed habitats with naturally occurring vegetation are more likely to support entomopathogenic fungi such as M. flavoviride.[15] It is of interest to continue research regarding the abundance and occurrence of M. flavoviride as it concerns using entomopathogenic fungi as a form of biological control.[2]

In the Shaanxi province in China, it was found that the richness of Metarhizium species decreased with increasing elevation.[13]

Entomopathogenicity

M. flavoviride is facultatively saprophytic. M. flavoviride can be free-living in soil or in the rhizosphere of plants in the absence of a host.[2]

M. flavoviride infects mainly by penetrating the host through the cuticle and colonizes through the body cavity. The fungal propagule germinates, creates an appressorium, and generates a penetration peg which produces degradative enzymes that break down the cuticle. The fungal hyphae use the epicuticular waxes and lipids for growth. M. flavoviride secretes toxic secondary metabolites that facilitate infection of the hemolymph. Death of the host is caused by physical damage and loss of normal function.[5][11]

References

  1. 1 2 3 Humber, Richard A. (1997), "Fungi", Manual of Techniques in Insect Pathology, Elsevier, pp. 153–185, doi:10.1016/b978-012432555-5/50011-7, ISBN 9780124325555, retrieved 2023-05-03
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tóthné Bogdányi; Petrikovszki; Balog; Putnoky-Csicsó; Gódor; Bálint; Tóth (2019-11-02). "Current Knowledge of the Entomopathogenic Fungal Species Metarhizium flavoviride Sensu Lato and Its Potential in Sustainable Pest Control". Insects. 10 (11): 385. doi:10.3390/insects10110385. ISSN 2075-4450. PMC 6920967. PMID 31684065.
  3. 1 2 3 Driver, Felice; Milner, Richard J.; Trueman, John W.H. (February 2000). "A taxonomic revision of Metarhizium based on a phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequence data". Mycological Research. 104 (2): 134–150. doi:10.1017/s0953756299001756. ISSN 0953-7562.
  4. 1 2 3 Curran, J.; Driver, F.; Ballard, J.W.O.; Milner, R.J. (May 1994). "Phylogeny of Metarhizium: analysis of ribosomal DNA sequence data". Mycological Research. 98 (5): 547–552. doi:10.1016/s0953-7562(09)80478-4. ISSN 0953-7562.
  5. 1 2 3 Gołębiowski, Marek; Bojke, Aleksandra; Tkaczuk, Cezary (2021-03-30). "Effects of the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium robertsii, Metarhizium flavoviride, and Isaria fumosorosea on the lipid composition of Galleria mellonella larvae". Mycologia. 113 (3): 525–535. doi:10.1080/00275514.2021.1877520. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 33783340. S2CID 232419429.
  6. ↑ Liu, Si‐Yu; Lai, You‐Peng; Du, Guang‐Zu; Chen, Bin (November 2022). "Investigation on tolerance of Metarhizium flavoviride Ma130821 to environmental stress factors and responses on biological control of larvae of Potosia brevitarsis Lewis". Entomological Research. 52 (11): 459–475. doi:10.1111/1748-5967.12620. ISSN 1738-2297. S2CID 253796354.
  7. ↑ Bridge, P. D.; Williams, M. A. J.; Prior, C.; Paterson, R. R. M. (1993-06-01). "Morphological, biochemical and molecular characteristics of Metarhizium anisopliae and M. flavoviride". Journal of General Microbiology. 139 (6): 1163–1169. doi:10.1099/00221287-139-6-1163. ISSN 0022-1287.
  8. ↑ St. Leger, R.J.; May, B.; Allee, L.L.; Frank, D.C.; Staples, R.C.; Roberts, D.W. (July 1992). "Genetic differences in allozymes and in formation of infection structures among isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 60 (1): 89–101. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(92)90159-2. ISSN 0022-2011.
  9. 1 2 Nishi, Oumi; Hasegawa, Keiichi; Iiyama, Kazuhiro; Yasunaga-Aoki, Chisa; Shimizu, Susumu (2011-05-07). "Phylogenetic analysis of Metarhizium spp. isolated from soil in Japan". Applied Entomology and Zoology. 46 (3): 301–309. doi:10.1007/s13355-011-0045-y. ISSN 0003-6862. S2CID 24382475.
  10. ↑ Meyling, Nicolai V.; Thorup-Kristensen, Kristian; Eilenberg, Jørgen (November 2011). "Below- and aboveground abundance and distribution of fungal entomopathogens in experimental conventional and organic cropping systems". Biological Control. 59 (2): 180–186. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2011.07.017. ISSN 1049-9644.
  11. 1 2 Vivekanandhan, Perumal; Swathy, Kannan; Alford, Lucy; Pittarate, Sarayut; Subala, Subramanian Panchu Ravindra Rajan; Mekchay, Supamit; Elangovan, Dilipan; Krutmuang, Patcharin (2022-10-06). "Toxicity of Metarhizium flavoviride conidia virulence against Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and its impact on physiological and biochemical activities". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 16775. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-20426-x. hdl:1983/e7340678-0a3e-4b76-b245-0327c7bdd06d. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9537412. PMID 36202839.
  12. ↑ Shepard BM, Barrion AT, Litsinger JA. 1987. Helpful insects, spiders, and pathogens. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 127 pp.
  13. 1 2 Masoudi, Abolfazl; Koprowski, John lad; Bhattarai, Upendra Raj; Wang, Dun (2017-11-30). "Elevational distribution and morphological attributes of the entomopathogenic fungi from forests of the Qinling Mountains in China". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 102 (3): 1483–1499. doi:10.1007/s00253-017-8651-4. ISSN 0175-7598. PMID 29189901. S2CID 253769818.
  14. ↑ Keyser, Chad A.; De Fine Licht, Henrik H.; Steinwender, Bernhardt M.; Meyling, Nicolai V. (2015-10-30). "Diversity within the entomopathogenic fungal species Metarhizium flavoviride associated with agricultural crops in Denmark". BMC Microbiology. 15 (1): 249. doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0589-z. ISSN 1471-2180. PMC 4628438. PMID 26519342.
  15. ↑ Shin, Tae Young; Lee, Won Woo; Ko, Seung Hyun; Choi, Jae Bang; Bae, Sung Min; Choi, Jae Young; Lee, Kwang Sik; Je, Yeon Ho; Jin, Byung Rae; Woo, Soo Dong (March 2013). "Distribution and characterisation of entomopathogenic fungi from Korean soils". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 23 (3): 288–304. doi:10.1080/09583157.2012.756853. ISSN 0958-3157. S2CID 84214137.
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