Muskogean
Geographic
distribution		Southeastern North America
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions
Glottologmusk1252
Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages

Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a Native American language family spoken in different areas of the Southeastern United States. Though the debate concerning their interrelationships is ongoing, the Muskogean languages are generally divided into two branches, Eastern Muskogean and Western Muskogean. Typologically, Muskogean languages are agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is extinct and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

Genetic relationships

Family division

The Muskogean family consists of six languages that are still spoken: Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (previously referred to as Creek), Koasati, and Mikasuki, as well as the now-extinct Apalachee, Houma, and Hitchiti (the last is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki).[1] "Seminole" is listed as one of the Muskogean languages in Hardy's list, but it is generally considered a dialect of Muscogee rather than a separate language, as she comments.[2]

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.[3][4][5] Because Apalachee is extinct, its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain; Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.[6]

Haas's classification

For connections among these groupings, the traditional classification is that of Mary Haas and her students, such as Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.[7] That classification is reflected in the list below:[8][9]

  • Muskogean
    • Western Muskogean
    • Eastern Muskogean
      • Muscogee (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and previously referred to as Creek)
      • Hitchiti-Mikasuki (also called Miccosukee)
      • Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati

Munro's classification

A more recent and controversial classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is the subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).[7] The classification is reflected in the list below:[10]

Kimball's classification

A third proposed classification is that of Geoffrey Kimball, who envisions a threeway split among the languages, with "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw), "Eastern Muskogean" (Muscogee), and "Central Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki).[11] However, Kimball's classification has not received as much support as either Haas's or Munro's.[12]

Broader relationships

Possible Muskogean languages

Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean.[13][14] However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.[15] It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.[16] The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of Hitchiti, Coweta, and Cussita.[17]

The Pensacola and Chatot (or Chacato) people are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.[18][19][20]

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi in northeastern South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby Siouan and Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.[21]

A vocabulary of the Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of Mobilian Jargon. Mobilian Jargon is a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

Gulf

The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.[13][22] A number of Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.[23]

Features

Phonology

Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in IPA transcription):[24]

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar
Central Lateral Plain Labialized
Stops *p *t *k *kʷ
Affricates *ts *tʃ
Fricatives *s *ɬ *ʃ *x *xʷ
Nasals *m *n
Approximants *l *j *w
Other *θ

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as */x/ and */xʷ/ show up as /h/ and /f/ (or /ɸ/[25]), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;[26] they are therefore reconstructed by some as */h/ and */ɸ/.[10][27] */kʷ/ appears as /b/ in all the daughter languages except Muscogee for which it is /k/ initially and /p/ medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written ⟨θ⟩ (or ⟨N⟩) is unknown;[28] it appears as /n/ in Western Muskogean languages and as /ɬ/ in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless /n/ (that is, */n̥/), based partly on presumed cognates in Natchez.[10][29]

Nouns

Most family languages display lexical accent on nouns and grammatical case, which distinguishes the nominative from the oblique. Nouns do not obligatorially inflect for gender or number.

Verbs

Muskogean verbs have a complex ablaut system; the verbal stem almost always changes depending on aspect; less commonly, it is affected by tense or modality. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades."

Verbs mark for first and second person, as well as agent and patient (Choctaw and Chickasaw also mark for dative). Third-persons (he, she, it) have a null-marker.

Plurality of a noun agent is marked by either affixation on the verb or an innately plural verbal stem:

Pluralization via affixation, Choctaw:

ishimpa

ish-impa

2SG.NOM-eat

ish-impa

2SG.NOM-eat

"you [sg.] eat"

hashimpa

hash-impa

2PL.NOM-eat

hash-impa

2PL.NOM-eat

"you [pl.] eat"

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:

łiniik

run.SG

łiniik

run.SG

"to run (singular)"

palaak

run.PAU

palaak

run.PAU

"to run (several)"

mataak

run.PL

mataak

run.PL

"to run (many)"

Vocabulary

Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):[30]

Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)
glossChickasawChoctawAlabamaMikasukiMuscogee
allmõmamõmaóyhamaamos-omalka
asheshottokhitokchobihistotolhambiiisso
bellyittakoba'iffokaikfilampinalhki
bigishtochitocobacoob-lhakkii
birdfoshi'hoshifoosifoosifoswa
bitekisilikopoolikachalhlhikabalikciakkita
blacklosalosalocaloocilasti
bloodissishissishlhakhanipicikcicaati
bonefoni'fonicokfoni-fooniiffoni
breastip shikip shikpisiowaacihokpi
burnlowalowahlibatliyill-noklhita
clawiyyakchoshiyyakchoshiyyaksiiiyakoosiilinkososwa
cloudhoshontihoshõtionoolicihosotiaholocii
coldkapassakapassakasatkakapaalikasappi
comemintim tiilaont-atita
dieilliilliilliil-ilita
dogofi'ofiifaiifiifa
drinkishkoishkoiskoisk-iskita
dryshilashilasolotkasokook-kalhpii
earhaksibishaksobishhakcohacoobihakco
earthyakni'yakniihaaniyakniiikana
eatimpapaipaimp-hompita
eggakankoshi'akãkoshiakaakocóòsionaasicostaki
eyeishkinnishkinittilhiititolhwa
fat (grease)nihabilanitokciniihinihaa
firelowaklowaktikbaiititootka
fishnani'nanilhalholhaalhilhalho
fly, towakaahikawakaykayakaal-tamkita
footiyyi'iyyiiyyiiyiili
fullkayyakayyakayyalabaknifackita
giveimaimainkaiik-imita
goodchokmaachokmakanohiilhih lhi
greenokchamaliokchamaaliokcakkohonotbitalakcilaani
hairpãshi'/hishi'pãshi/hishihissitokisiissi
handilbakibbakilbiilbiinki
headishkobo'noshkoboisbakkoyoosiika
hearhánglohaklohaalohakl-pohita
heartchõkashchõkashconoskaconosbifiiki
hornlapishlapishlapihcilap-iyapi
Iano'anoanaaaniani
killabiabiibiill ciliicita
kneeiyyinto'lhka'iyyi kalaahaittôlhpatolhpitolhkowa
knowithánaikhanasobayliataalhkilhlhita
lie down, totí'watalaayabaláàlitalaalwakkita
liversalakhasalakhaillopilopilopi
longfalaafalaayabaskibackicapki
louseissapissapichahicahciicka
manhattak nakni'hattak nakninaaninaknihonanwa
manylawalawalawaaconkisolkii
meat (flesh)nipi'nipinipoakniapiswa
mountainonchabahabikbokkoscaahaiikanhalwii
mouthitiitialbiicokhalbiicicokwa
nameholhchifohohchifoholcifahocilkihocifka
necknokhistapikkõlanokbinokbinokwa
newhimittahimmonahahpahimacimocasi
nightoklhili'ninaktankaniilhakinilhii
noseibichchala'ibishakniibisaaniibiyopoo
notki'yokiiyománkomaatimonks
onechaffaachaffacaffaakalhaaminhamkin
person (human)hattakhattakaatiyaatiisti
rainombaõbaoybaokoob-oskita
redhommahommahommakitiscicaati
road (path)hina'hinahinihininini
roothaksishhakshishassikciaskiyalomka
roundlhiboktakalaahabonotkapolockipolooki
sayaachiaachimankakaacmaakita
sandshinokshinoksancosamoocioktaaha
seep sap sahichahicahicita
seednihi'nihihilhikciyiilhinilhka
sitbínni'libiniilicokóòlicokool-leykita
skinhakshophakshopaffakcihalbihalhpi
sleepnosinosinocinooc-nocita
smalliskanno'siosicinoofawink-cotki
smokeshobohlishobohlisobotliockociikkoci
standhíkki'yahikiiyalokóòlilokookahoylhita
starfoshikfichikhociilhiowaacikikocacampa
stonetali'talitalitalicato
sunhashi'hashihasihaasihasi
swimyopiokshiniilioohapkaopahk-omeyyita
tailhasimbishhas bishacihaacihaci
thatyammamaakkimama
thisyappapayayaya
thouishno'chishnoisnacihn-ciimi
tongueisõlashittõlasicoolaksicokolaasitolaaswa
toothnoti'notiinnati-nootinoti
treeitti'ittiittoahiito
twotoklotoklotôklotoklanhokkoolin
walknõwanowaciyahlicayahlyakapita
warm (hot)lashpalashpaikbahãyyihayyita
wateroka'okaokiookioywa
weposhno'pishnoposnapohnipoomi
whatnantanatahnáàsinaakinaaki
whitetohbitohbihatkahatkihatki
whokatakatahnáksinoolh-isteyma
womanihooohooyotayyitaykihoktii
yellowlaknalaknalaanalaknilaanii

Proto-language

Proto-Muskogean
Reconstruction ofMuskogean languages

Proto-Muskogean reconstructions by Booker (2005):

Proto-Muskogean reconstructions by Booker (2005)
no.glossProto-Muskogeanbranch
1dove, pigeon*pačiCi
2stem, stalk*apiCi
3rock*taliCi
4tooth*notiCi
5skunk*koniCo
6(to) bloom*pakanli
7arrow*θakiCi
8night*niθaki
9yellow-shafted pucker*xʷitokxaki
10mulberry*kʷixiCi
11(to) copy, imitate*a-xokʷa
12behind*yokʷala
13pokeweed*kosikʷaCa
14(to) have ringworm*xiClampakʷi
15overtake*¢aCki
16(to) sleep*no¢i
17fox*čolaCa
18crawfish*sakačiCo
19otter*osana
20(to) boil*moxoθi
21pass through*lompotVli
22peel off*čilaxʷa
23pull, hold*xalato
24seed (in fruit)*nixiliCi
25ashes*ixistoko
26(to) sit (pl)*kaxa
27land*ixakanika
28(to) vomit)*axowita
29medicine*axinlisi
30axe*čaxaxʷi
31duck*xʷočo
32(to) name*xocixʷa
33screech owl*xaxʷonlo
34grandfather*axʷaCo
35(to) beat, stir up*kʷaxʷo
36(to) gnaw*kalixʷi
37fall off*čilaxʷa
38(to) whip, lash*loCkanxʷo
39chief, king*minkkoCo
40(to) protrude*xʷama
41bone*xʷoniCi
42liver, marrow*lopiCi
43(to) scratch, slice*kalaxʷa
44back (of body)*θali
45spring (of water)*kaliCi
46(to) doctor*alikci
47horn*(i-)lapi
48cuckoo*talonktaCi
49grubworm*yolaCa
50turtle*lok¢iCa
51(to) go*aya
52crane*watonlaka
53wildcat*kowiCi
54cricket*šalontakiCa
55squash*šoksiCi
56ant*šonkkʷani
57skin, rind*axʷakšopi
58son*ošiCi
59tendon, muscle, blood vessel, intestine*xʷikši
60yellow, green, brown*lakna
61trout*¢akliCo
62two*toklo
63sifting basket*sakla
64soft-shelled turtle*xolakwaCa
65hole, hollow*olakkʷi
66sun*xasiCi
67(to) offer*wayli
68hoe*loyli
69(to) mark*čawli
70persimmon*xoθkoxʷa
71mushroom*paktiCo
72sack, bag*sokča
73ghost*silopi
74turkey*xʷakito
75betsy bug*i¢sonksiCo
76(to) beg, plead for*kosapi
77hear*xaklo
78earthworm*lakapčo
79peach*tapakonla
80(of liquid)*¢itko
81flat and wide*patakxa
82wise*ko¢tini
83small*i¢katini
84(to) shoot at and hit*i¢xo
85smoke*ičkoči
86mother*ičkiCi
87rectum*ičkoCkʷiko
88(to) inflate*sokpaxʷa
89destroy, ruin*xokpani
90(to) adhere to*alokpa
91(to) pucker*wiliksiProto-Eastern Muskogean
92double*poktaCa
93tree*iktiCo
94frog*sokaktiCi
95pass wind*xok¢o
96upper arm*sakkʷaCa
97astringent tasting*tikkʷa
98opossum*sokxaCa
99rabbit*čokxʷiCi
100jaw, chin*notakxʷa
101bramble, briar*kʷakčokoProto-Eastern Muskogean
102rib, side*nak¢iCi
103flea*kastiCo
104(to) drink*isko
105rot, decay*toskʷi
106knee*in-tolkopa
107father*iθkiCi
108(to) steal*xoθkopa
109young*ximanixta
110day*nixtaka
111river*xaxčaCi
112hungry*xox(ʷ)čaxʷa
113different*im-alaxka
114(to) pinch*yikixʷla
115skin*xalkʷiCi
116wife*xalikiProto-Eastern Muskogean
117(to) forget*ilxosiProto-Eastern Muskogean
118(to) grow, sprout*xolxʷanti
119white oak*kʷalyiCa
120pine*colyiProto-Eastern Muskogean
121(to) raise animals*apoykʷa
122(to) eat (a meal)*impa
123(to) come*ominti
124pawpaw*onkʷiCo
125breast*ipinsiki
126(to) hide*xolamxi
127buy*lonxʷa
128(to) weave*taCθa
129(to) get warm from a heat source*iCθi
130(to) shoot at*xonC¢a
131war*hoCli
132(to) die*iCli
133pepper*xoCma
134(to) want, need*kʷaCna
135road*xinaCi
136dark*tampki
137stout*lampko
138snake*¢inCtiCo
139hard, rigid*wantxaProto-Eastern Muskogean
140shoot at*xonC¢a
141(to) cloak oneself*anCči
142whippoorwill*xačokkʷilankkʷila
143Canada goose*axankxaCa
144grasshopper*xatankxʷaCo
145grass*panxsi
146true*anxli
147hand, lower arm*ilmkʷi
148(to) rain*oynkʷa
149whoop like an Indian*paynxa
150(to) flow*xoxʷayxna
151heavy*waylki
152buy*čowmpa
153(to) suck*sočonka
154frost*xitontiki
155(to) play a game*xompaniProto-Eastern Muskogean
156winter*oθanxʷaCi
157(to) pierce*lompotVli

Notes

  1. ↑ Hardy 2005, pg. 69
  2. ↑ (Hardy 2005:70; see also Mithun 2005:462, Crawford).
  3. ↑ Broadwell 1992, p. 1
  4. ↑ Hardy 2005, pg. 70
  5. ↑ Martin & Munro 2005, pg. 299
  6. ↑ Broadwell 1992, pp. 3; 41-2, footnote 2
  7. 1 2 Hardy 2005, pp. 70-71
  8. ↑ Mithun 2005, pg. 461
  9. ↑ Campbell 1997, pg. 147
  10. 1 2 3 Campbell 1997, pg. 148
  11. ↑ Mithun 1999, pg. 462
  12. ↑ Broadwell 1992
  13. 1 2 Campbell 1997, pg. 149
  14. ↑ Broadwell 1992, pp. 41–42, fn. 2
  15. ↑ Sturtevant 1994, referenced in Campbell 1997, pg. 149
  16. ↑ Dr. Chester B. DePratter, "The Foundation, Occupation, and Abandonment of Yamasee Indian Towns in the South Carolina Lowcountry, 1684-1715", National Register Multiple Property Submission
  17. ↑ Oatis, Steven J. (2004). A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3575-5.
  18. ↑ Milanich:96
  19. ↑ Coker:6
  20. ↑ Swanton:136
  21. ↑ Hudson, Charles The Juan Pardo Expeditions Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, pp. 68-73, 75
  22. ↑ Campbell 1997, pp. 305-9
  23. ↑ Campbell 1997, pg. 305
  24. ↑ Booker 2005
  25. ↑ Booker 2005, pg. 254
  26. ↑ Booker 2005, pp. 248, 252, 254
  27. ↑ Martin & Munro 2005, pg. 318, fn. 2
  28. ↑ Booker 2005, pg. 286, footnote 7
  29. ↑ Booker 2005, pp. 251-2
  30. ↑ Broadwell, George Aaron. (1992). Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results. Paper presented at the Southern Anthropological Society, St. Augustine, FL.
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Muskogean reconstructions

Bibliography

  • Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), Native languages of the Southeastern United States, 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
  • Broadwell, George Aaron. (1992). Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results Archived 2006-01-07 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Paper presented at the Southern Anthropological Society, St. Augustine, FL. Retrieved on 2009-05-03.
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686-1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. Archaeology of colonial Pensacola. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1661-4 Found at Google Books
  • Crawford, James M. (Ed.). (1975a). Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
  • Crawford, James M. (1975b). "Southeastern Indian Languages". In Crawford (ed.) 1975, pp. 1–120.
  • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
  • Haas, Mary (1951). "The Proto-Gulf word for water (with notes on Siouan–Yuchi)". International Journal of American Linguistics 17: 71–79.
  • Haas, Mary. (1952). "The Proto-Gulf word for 'land' (with notes on Proto-Siouan)". International Journal of American Linguistics 18:238–240.
  • Haas, Mary. (1973). "The Southeast". In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 1210–1249). The Hague: Mouton.
  • Hardy, Heather. (2005). "Introduction". In Hardy & Scancarelli 2005, pp. 69–74.
  • Hardy, Heather & Janine Scancarelli. (2005). Native Languages of the Southeastern United States. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  • Hopkins, Nicholas A. The Native Languages of the Southeastern United States (PDF). Report for the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved on 2009-05-03.
  • Martin, Jack B. & Pamela Munro. (2005). "Proto-Muskogean Morphology". in Hardy & Scancarelli eds., pp. 299–320
  • Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1360-7
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
  • Sturtevant, William C. (1994). "The Misconnection of Guale and Yamasee with Muskogean". International Journal of American Linguistics 60:139–148.
  • Swanton, John Reed. (1952) The Indian Tribes of North America. Found at Google Books
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