Frugivory is an example of plant-animal interaction

Plant-animal interactions are important pathways for the transfer of energy within ecosystems, where both advantageous and unfavorable interactions support ecosystem health.[1][2] Plant-animal interactions can take on important ecological functions and manifest in a variety of combinations of favorable and unfavorable associations, for example predation, frugivory and herbivory, parasitism, and mutualism.[3] Without mutualistic relationships, some plants may not be able to complete their life cycles, and the animals may starve due to resource deficiency.[4]

Evolution

The earliest vascular plants initially formed on the planet about 425 million years ago, in the Devonian period of the early Paleozoic era. About every feeding method an animal might employ to consume plants had already been well-developed by the time the first herbivorous insects started consuming ferns during the Carboniferous epoch.[5] In the earliest known antagonistic relationships with plants, insects consume plant pollen and spores.[6] Since 300 million years ago, insects have been known to consume nectar and pollinate flowers. In the Mesozoic, between 200 and 150 million years ago, insects' feeding patterns started to diversify.[7] The evolution of plant defenses to reduce cost and increase resistance to herbivores is a crucial component of the Optimal Defense Hypothesis. In order to deal with the plant's adaptability, the animal likewise evolved counter-adaptations.[8] Over the history of their shared evolution, plants and animals have significantly diverged, in large part because of productive co-evolutionary processes that emerged from antagonistic interactions.[9][10] Mutualistic interactions between plants and insects have developed and disintegrated over the course of the evolution of angiosperms.[11]

Relationship

Defoliation or root removal caused by herbivory can control or reduce the overall phytomass, but it can also promote species diversity and have an impact on plant dispersion, which in turn controls ecological stability.[12][13] In mutualistic relationships between pollinators and plants, the former receives food from the latter and in exchange acts as a plant propagation agent and a gene-transfer vector.[14] The intricate web of species-specificity, habitat choice, and coevolution between plants and their pollinators has already been clarified by studies examining the feeding behaviors of pollinators and their interactive role in maintaining ecosystems.[15] True mutualisms also promote development and provide pathogen protection.[16] Plant growth and development are aided by mutualistic interactions between animals and plants, such as those between nematodes and insects.[17]

Types

Predation

Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. There are carnivorous plants as well as herbivores and carnivores that consume plants and animals, respectively. Due to the extremely low nutritional content of the soil in which they grow and extra nitrogen is needed by the plants, therefore carnivorous plants eat insects. By photosynthesis, these plants continue to receive energy from the sun.[18]

Parasitism

Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. Plant parasites are a common term for sap-sucking insects like aphids.[19]

Commensalism

Commensalism is the term used to describe a situation in which one organism gains and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.[20] For instance, epiphytes on tree trunks in rain forests are aided by the trees because they provide a surface for their growth. Unless the epiphytes' weight becomes so great that the tree branches break, the epiphytes don't seem to have any effect on the trees.[21]

Mutualism

When both species gain from their interaction, mutualism develops. The mutualistic link between pollinators and plants is very well illustrated. In this instance, the animal pollinator (bee, butterfly, beetle, hummingbird, etc.) receives nourishment in exchange for carrying the plants' pollen from flower to flower (usually nectar or pollen). Another common method of seed dispersion involves an alliance between the plant and the animal that disperses the seeds. The tasty fruit that encases the seeds is consumed by numerous animals. The seeds are subsequently dispersed in a new spot some distance from the parent plant, frequently with feces that also serves as a little amount of fertilizer. In every ecosystem, there are interactions of this nature between species.[22][23][24]

References

  1. ↑ "Plant-Animal Interactions - Botany - Trinity College Dublin". www.tcd.ie. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
  2. ↑ Del-Claro, Kleber; Torezan-Silingardi, Helena Maura (2021-05-03). Plant-Animal Interactions: Source of Biodiversity. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-66877-8.
  3. ↑ Chama, Lackson; Berens, Dana G.; Downs, Colleen T.; Farwig, Nina (2013-01-24). "Habitat Characteristics of Forest Fragments Determine Specialisation of Plant-Frugivore Networks in a Mosaic Forest Landscape". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e54956. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054956. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3554686. PMID 23365688.
  4. ↑ Castagneyrol, Bastien; Bonal, Damien; Damien, Maxime; Jactel, Hervé; Meredieu, Céline; Muiruri, Evalyne W.; Barbaro, Luc (May 2017). "Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory". Ecology and Evolution. 7 (10): 3520–3531. doi:10.1002/ece3.2950. PMC 5433970. PMID 28515887.
  5. ↑ Strauss, Sharon Y.; Irwin, Rebecca E. (2004-12-15). "Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Multispecies Plant-Animal Interactions". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 35 (1): 435–466. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130215. ISSN 1543-592X.
  6. ↑ Fu, Qiang; Diez, Jose Bienvenido; Pole, Mike; García Ávila, Manuel; Liu, Zhong-Jian; Chu, Hang; Hou, Yemao; Yin, Pengfei; Zhang, Guo-Qiang; Du, Kaihe; Wang, Xin (2018-12-18). Taylor, David; Baldwin, Ian T (eds.). "An unexpected noncarpellate epigynous flower from the Jurassic of China". eLife. 7: e38827. doi:10.7554/eLife.38827. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC 6298773. PMID 30558712.
  7. ↑ Ramírez-Barahona, Santiago; Sauquet, Hervé; Magallón, Susana (September 2020). "The delayed and geographically heterogeneous diversification of flowering plant families". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4 (9): 1232–1238. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1241-3. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 32632260.
  8. ↑ Del-Claro, K.; Rico-Gray, V.; Torezan-Silingardi, H. M.; Alves-Silva, E.; Fagundes, R.; Lange, D.; Dáttilo, W.; Vilela, A. A.; Aguirre, A.; Rodriguez-Morales, D. (2016-05-01). "Loss and gains in ant–plant interactions mediated by extrafloral nectar: fidelity, cheats, and lies". Insectes Sociaux. 63 (2): 207–221. doi:10.1007/s00040-016-0466-2. ISSN 1420-9098.
  9. ↑ Thompson, John N. (2014-02-14). Interaction and Coevolution. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-12732-3.
  10. ↑ Holeski, Liza M.; Hillstrom, Michael L.; Whitham, Thomas G.; Lindroth, Richard L. (November 2012). "Relative importance of genetic, ontogenetic, induction, and seasonal variation in producing a multivariate defense phenotype in a foundation tree species". Oecologia. 170 (3): 695–707. doi:10.1007/s00442-012-2344-6. ISSN 1432-1939. PMID 22652923.
  11. ↑ Bronstein, Judith L.; Alarcón, Ruben; Geber, Monica (2006). "The evolution of plant-insect mutualisms". The New Phytologist. 172 (3): 412–428. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01864.x. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 17083673.
  12. ↑ Castagneyrol, Bastien; Bonal, Damien; Damien, Maxime; Jactel, Hervé; Meredieu, Céline; Muiruri, Evalyne W.; Barbaro, Luc (May 2017). "Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory". Ecology and Evolution. 7 (10): 3520–3531. doi:10.1002/ece3.2950. PMC 5433970. PMID 28515887.
  13. ↑ Milchunas, D. G.; Lauenroth, W. K. (November 1993). "Quantitative Effects of Grazing on Vegetation and Soils Over a Global Range of Environments: Ecological Archives M063-001". Ecological Monographs. 63 (4): 327–366. doi:10.2307/2937150. ISSN 0012-9615. JSTOR 2937150.
  14. ↑ Allan G. Ellis, Steven D. Johnson (July–August 2012). "Lack of floral constancy by bee fly pollinators: implications for ethological isolation in an African daisy". Behavioral Ecology. 23 (4): 729–734. doi:10.1093/beheco/ars019. hdl:10.1093/beheco/ars019.
  15. ↑ Sargent, Risa D.; Ackerly, David D. (2008-03-01). "Plant–pollinator interactions and the assembly of plant communities". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 23 (3): 123–130. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.003. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 18262307.
  16. ↑ Agerbo Rasmussen, Jacob; Nielsen, Martin; Mak, Sarah S. T.; Döring, Johanna; Klincke, Franziska; Gopalakrishnan, Shyam; Dunn, Robert R.; Kauer, Randolf; Gilbert, Marcus Thomas Pius (January 2021). "eDNA‐based biomonitoring at an experimental German vineyard to characterize how management regimes shape ecosystem diversity". Environmental DNA. 3 (1): 70–82. doi:10.1002/edn3.131. hdl:11250/2981839. ISSN 2637-4943. S2CID 225305322.
  17. ↑ Ladin, Zachary S.; Ferrell, Barbra; Dums, Jacob T.; Moore, Ryan M.; Levia, Delphis F.; Shriver, W. Gregory; D’Amico, Vincent; Trammell, Tara L. E.; Setubal, João Carlos; Wommack, K. Eric (2021-01-15). "Assessing the efficacy of eDNA metabarcoding for measuring microbial biodiversity within forest ecosystems". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 1629. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-80602-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7811025. PMID 33452291.
  18. ↑ Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size". Trends Ecol. Evol. 17 (11): 507–513. doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0.
  19. ↑ Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.
  20. ↑ Wilson, Edward O. (2000-03-24). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00089-6.
  21. ↑ "Rainforest Epiphytes". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
  22. ↑ Bronstein, J. L. (2015). The study of mutualism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199675654. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Fritsch FE, Salisbury EJ (1920). An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants. G. Bell.
  24. ↑ Mauseth JD (2008). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.
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