Conflicts

Between retreating Russian and advancing German troops, and the nearing occupation by the German Empire, the Salvation Committee of the Estonian Provincial Assembly declared on 24 February 1918 the independence of Estonia. The German Empire did not recognise the newly-declared Republic of Estonia. However, after the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I in November 1918, Germany withdrew its troops from Estonia, and formally handed power in Estonia over to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November.^[6] The Estonian War of Independence followed against the Bolshevik westward offensive of 1918–1919 and the 1919 aggression of the Baltische Landeswehr. On 2 February 1920, the Peace Treaty of Tartu was signed by the Republic of Estonia and RSFSR. The terms of the treaty stated that Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia. Meanwhile, Viktor Kingissepp had led a communist uprising at Saaremaa in February 1919, which had been suppressed with 81 rebels killed in battle and 82 executed.^[7] Another conflict arose with the Walk crisis with Latvia over a border town, though this was peacefully resolved.

Constitutional democracy and its challenges

The Constitution of Estonia adopted on 21 December 1920 gave universal suffrage with proportional representation.^[8] The Head of State of Estonia combined some of the functions held by a president and prime minister in most other democracies. Fourteen parties were represented in 1923, causing coalition governments to be the norm.^[8] The 1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt conducted by the Comintern,^[9] was a failed coup attempt in Estonia staged by Communists (mostly infiltrated from Soviet Union) on December 1, 1924.^[10][11][12] Of the 279 actively participating communists, 125 were killed in action, later more than 500 people were arrested. The government forces lost 26 men.

Between 1924 and 1934, there were 16 different coalition governments formed.^[13] The Vaps Movement emerged in reaction with a demand for a smaller parliament and a directly elected president.^[13] The Movement was a paramilitary anti-socialist organisation led by former officers of the Russian Tsar's Army,^[14] with most of its base being veterans of the Estonian War of Independence.^[15] The organisation also advocated a more authoritarian and nationalist government in Estonia.^[15][16] In 1933, a referendum approved a new constitution passing the Movement's demands on the parliament and presidency.^[17] Ahead of the following year's elections for both, a state of emergency was declared on 12 March 1934 to prevent the Vaps candidate from winning, with the vote postponed and political gatherings banned.^[18]

Authoritarian rule

During the authoritarian rule following 1934, decision-making was made by Konstantin Päts and his close circle, chosen in large part from his family.^[19] Opposition parties were banned.^[20] So too were trade unions, while the press was censored and legislation passed by presidential decree rather through the parliament.^[21]

Soviet takeover

The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact gave the Soviet Union free rein to act in Estonia as it wished.^[22] Following the Orzeł incident, the Soviets demanded military bases in the country, to which the Estonia acquiesced.^[23] This did not initially affect life in the country.^[24] On 17 June 1940, the Red Army emerged from its military bases in Estonia and, aided by an additional 90,000 Soviet troops, took over the country, occupying the entire territory of the Republic of Estonia,.^[25][26] Most of the Estonian Defence Forces and the Estonian Defence League surrendered according to the orders and were disarmed by the Red Army. The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic was soon established and joined the Soviet Union.

Nazi occupation and defeat

In the course of Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany occupied Estonia in July 1941. The Estonian Self-Administration was the puppet government set up in Estonia during the occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany. It was headed by Hjalmar Mäe. The Estonian Self-Administration was subordinated to the administration of Generalbezirk Estland and its directors were appointed by the chief of the Generalbezirk, Commissioner-General Karl-Siegmund Litzmann. After the German departure, Tallinn was held for four days by a native Estonian government led by Otto Tief.^[27] The Estonian government-in-exile^[28] was formally declared as the governmental authority of the Republic of Estonia in exile from 1944. Around 10,000 fighters opposed the Soviets with guerrilla warfare.^[29]

Soviet rule

In 1950, the Communist Party of Estonia was taken over by Johannes Käbin in a coup.^[30] After 103 senior officials had been purged from leadership positions, he would stay in power until 1978.^[31] He was replaced by Karl Vaino, who pursued a Russification policy.^[32] The Letter of 40 intellectuals in 1980 was a sign of dissent against the Soviet authorities.^[33] In 1987, protests began against proposed phosphate mining.^[34] Vaino was replaced by Vaino Väljas, a native Estonian.^[35] The Intermovement organisation was established to support the preservation of the Soviet Union in 1988. In November of the same year, the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic gave the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration.^[36] The declaration asserted Estonia's sovereignty and the supremacy of the Estonian laws over the laws of the Soviet Union.^[37]

In 1989, independence activists formed a mass movement called the Estonian Citizens' Committees and started registering persons^[38][39] who were Estonian citizens by birth according to the jus sanguinis principle. In February 1990, the election of a body of representatives of these citizens – the Congress of Estonia – was conducted by those who had been registered. The Estonian National Independence Party won the most seats. Other parties represented included the Popular Front of Estonia. An independence referendum was held on 3 March 1991,^[40] which approved it by 78.4% of voters with an 82.9% turnout. Independence was restored by the Estonian Supreme Council on the night of 20 August.^[41]