Regnal lists of Ethiopia are recorded lists of monarchs who are claimed by tradition to have ruled Ethiopia. These lists are often recorded on manuscripts or orally by monasteries and have been passed down over the centuries.

Many surviving physical regnal lists, as well as recorded oral lists, chronicle the line of kings beginning with Menelik I to the Solomonic dynasty. In Ethiopian tradition, Menelik is believed to be the son of queen Makeda (the Biblical Queen of Sheba) and king Solomon. The rulers that followed Menelik were the kings of Axum, the Zagwe dynasty and the Solomonic dynasty. Some monarchs who ruled before Menelik are recorded in different Ethiopian traditions. These regnal lists were used to prove the longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy and to provide legitimacy for the Solomonic dynasty until its fall from power in 1974.

Traditions

Menelik I

Ethiopian traditions record a range of different monarchs from earlier times whose existence has not been verified by modern-day archeology. Their stories and legends may have elements of truth but it is unclear to what extent this is the case. Numerous king lists have been recorded either on manuscripts or via oral tradition. However, surviving information on the kings prior to the reign of emperor Yekuno Amlak (1270–1285) is often scattered, incomplete or contradictory.^[1][2] The king lists that do refer to pre-1270 Ethiopia rarely match completely with one another.^[3] This variation is likely because the lists were compiled over a long time period across several different monasteries.^[4]

Notable legendary Ethiopian monarchs include:

• Arwe – Mythical serpent king who ruled for 400 years before being killed by Angabo.
• Angabo – A king of non-royal birth who killed the evil serpent Arwe, and was the father or ancestor of Makeda, the Queen of Sheba.
• Ethiopis – A king who was said to have inspired the name of the country of Ethiopia.
• Makeda – The biblical queen of Sheba who, according to Ethiopian tradition, is believed to be the mother of Menelik I.
• Menelik I – Son of the queen of Sheba and king Solomon of Israel and founder of the Solomonic dynasty in the 10th century BC. Much information on this king comes from the 14th century text Kebra Nagast, however he remains historically unverified. In reality, the Solomonic dynasty began in 1270 AD with the reign of Yekuno Amlak.
• Abreha and Atsbeha – Two brothers who supposedly brought Christianity to Ethiopia, however their existence is doubted by some historians. Some scholars believe that the story of Abreha and Atsbeha may in fact be based on the Axumite kings Ezana and Saizana.^[5]
• Gudit – Legendary queen who supposedly laid waste to the Kingdom of Axum. Her deeds are recorded in oral tradition, but the various stories about her occasionally have differing or conflicting details.

Regnal list variations

Historian Manfred Kropp noted that numerous regnal lists exist that date back to the 13th century and these are reliable documents. However, for the period before this there are only legendary memories of the Axumite rulers.^[2] Regnal lists were created to provide a connection between the Solomonic dynasty and the legendary Axumite kings while skipping the Zagwe dynasty. Such lists were written for the purpose of proving the legitimacy of the ruling Solomonic emperors and had information drawn from chronicles held in monasteries.^[6] Kropp believed that Ethiopian regnal lists were intended to fill in the gaps between major events, such as the meeting of Makeda and Solomon, the arrival of Frumentius and the beginning of the Zagwe dynasty. The great variation in names and order between regnal lists was likely because this process took place across several different monasteries and were also passed on orally.^[4]

E. A. Wallis Budge commented that any written information on the period of Ethiopian history before the 13th century was "incomplete" and "untrustworthy". However, he felt that this was because any regnal lists or chronological works held in Axum were likely burned or destroyed before Yekuno Amlak ascended the throne in 1270.^[7] Budge noted that numerous regnal lists were known to exist in which the number and order of kings were rarely the same. He felt that it was clear that the chronographers of Abyssinia from the 13th and 14th centuries "did not know how many kings had reigned over [their country] from the time of Makeda [...] or the exact order of succession". Budge theorized that while the regnal lists showed evidence that they were based on legend and tradition, some parts of the list suggested that the scribes did indeed "[have] access to chronological and historical documents of some kind", including Coptic and Arabic texts which were possibly brought over by monks fleeing Egypt and Nubia during the time of the Arab conquests. Some lists began with Adam or David.^[8]

Two European missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida, visited Ethiopia and personally saw two different regnal lists on which they based their respective writings on the history of Ethiopia.^[9] The manuscripts likely dated to before 1620.^[9] Both Páez and de Almeida stated that the Ethiopian emperor lent them books from the church of Axum containing the regnal lists.^[9] European travellers James Bruce, Henry Salt and Carlo Conti Rossini all published different regnal lists in Europe between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The lists were written based on information gathered from local Ethiopian scribes. These regnal lists contain a list of names from Menelik I to Dil Na'od, but both the names and order of kings only occasionally overlap between the different lists, and there are numerous kings who appear on one list but are omitted from another. There are also at least two manuscripts held in the British Museum that contain differing regnal lists covering the same lineage of monarchs.^[10] Budge theorised that the existence of multiple regnal lists were to due to rival claimants to the throne.^[11]

Biblical regnal list

This regnal list chronicles kings who ruled before Menelik I, but relies on Biblical chronology, particularly from the Book of Genesis.

The following list was included in E. A. Wallis Budge's book A History of Ethiopia (Volume I) and was quoted from two manuscripts; One held in the British Museum and another held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, which was published in René Basset's 1882 book Études sur l'histoire d'Éthiopie.^[12] The names of these kings also appear in the 14th-century text Kebra Nagast.^[13] Budge believed this list had "no historical value" and was only intended to fill the gap from Adam to Solomon.^[12]

The last king, 'Ebna Hakim, does not appear in the Bible and is meant to be Menelik I, the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.^[14] The name Ebna Hakim translates to "Son of the Wise Man" (i.e. Solomon) in Arabic.^[14]

The Kebra Nagast lists an additional king named 'Orni between Hezron and Aram, who was the son of Hezron and father of Aram.^[15] Budge believed this king to be Oren, son of Jerahmeel.^[15]

Hamitic dynasty

Another Ethiopian tradition claims that the Ethiopian monarchy descended from Ham, son of the Biblical prophet Noah. While Ham is not included in the Biblical regnal list mentioned above, a claimed genealogy from Ham to the founders of Axum does exist.^[16] According to this tradition, Axum was founded within a century after the Great Flood.^[17] This genealogy chronicles kings descending from Ham who represent Ethiopia and Axum. E. A. Wallis Budge called this dynasty the "Dynasty of Kush".^[18]

Enno Littmann recorded a tradition from an Ethiopian priest named Gabra Wahad, who stated the following:

Ham begot Kush, Kush begot Aethiopis, after whom the country is called Aethiopia to this day. Aethiopis was buried in Aksum, and his grave is known there to this day. It was said that a fire used to burn in it, and that if any donkey's excrement, or any bit of stuff fell into it, it was consumed. Aethiopis begot 'Aksumawi, 'Aksumawi begot Malayka 'Aksum, and begot also Sum, Nafas, Bagi'o, Kuduki, 'Akhoro, Fasheba. These six sons of 'Aksumawi became the fathers of Aksum. When they wished to divide their land, there came a man called May Bih, and as people say divided their land as an agent. Each of the six gave him two acres of land and he settled down with them.^[19]

Arwe dynasty

The mythical serpent Arwe is sometimes considered to be part of his own dynasty. Traditions quoted by Egyptologists Henry Salt and E. A. Wallis Budge differ on whether Arwe himself reigned for 400 years or whether this figure refers to the dynasty as a whole.

French historian Louis J. Morié noted a different interpretation on this dynasty. He claimed that there were three kings named Arwe or "Aroue" between 1776 B.C. and 1400 B.C., and the first king was a Hyksos chief who took the title of king of Axum in 1776 B.C.^[21] He also claimed that Arwe III was the brother of Angabo, who would defeat and kill him.^[22] This interpretation is, however, largely imaginative and not based on native Ethiopian tradition.

Angabo dynasty

After killing Arwe, Angabo became the new king of Ethiopia. Some traditions relate that he reigned for 200 years and was followed by three further kings before queen Makeda ascended the throne.^[24]

E. A. Wallis Budge called this dynasty a "Native African dynasty" to differentiate it from the "Kush dynasty".^[14]

All rulers of this dynasty were included on the 1922 regnal list as part of the "Agdazyan" or "Ag'azyan" dynasty. In most cases their reign lengths were shortened to be more realistic.

Regnal lists from Menelik I to Bazen

Beginning with Menelik I, Ethiopian regnal lists begin to diverge on the exact order of succession. Only a few rulers' names are consistently recorded across all lists. This section looks at rulers who are named as reigning between Menelik I and Bazen, who began his reign eight years before the birth of Jesus. Despite tradition claiming that Menelik ruled in the 10th century BC, the reign lengths provided on most lists do not allow for this.

Spanish missionary Pedro Páez (1564–1622).

The follow aggregate table compares nine regnal lists. These lists are:

• Two regnal lists recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.^[25]
• One regnal list recorded by Scottish traveller James Bruce in his book Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790).^[26] He had gathered information for his regnal list from local scribes, though did not believe they were trustworthy or that his regnal list was complete.^[27] Bruce acquired an Ethiopian manuscript which later became part of the Bodleian Library in Oxford.^[27]
• Two regnal lists recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).^[28][26] He considered the second list to be a "corrupt" list.^[28] The only obvious inaccuracy of the "corrupt" king list is the combining of kings Tomai and Zagdur into one king. Otherwise, the list shows noticeable similarities with the one quoted by Rossini and one of the British Museum manuscripts.
• One regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.^[29]
• Two manuscripts held in the British Museum which were quoted by British archeologist E. A. Wallis Budge. The first manuscript was filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 28b,^[26] while the second manuscript was filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 36a.^[30] Budge regarded the line of kings as represented by the second manuscript to be the most authoritative.^[31]
• The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, published in Charles Fernand Rey's book In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927).^[32] The authorship of the list is uncertain but it was treated by prince regent Tafari Makonnen as the official regnal list of the Ethiopian monarchy. This regnal list is notable for the addition of ancient Egyptian and Nubian names to many rulers.

Páez believed that the reason for the differences in names on various lists was because the Ethiopian emperors used different names prior to their accession to the throne, and some lists used their regnal names while others listed their birth names.^[33] This was supposedly done in imitation of Menelik I, who was named David when he was crowned.^[34] Páez quoted two regnal lists in full and stated the second list contained the names the kings took when the ascended to the throne.^[35] E. A. Wallis Budge theorised that the existence of multiple king lists suggest that these represent rival claimants to the throne.^[31]

The 1922 regnal list brings together previous king lists and attempts to include the majority of monarchs in a longer line of succession. For this list, the table below includes two numbered positions. The first is the position the monarch is listed in the line of succession from Menelik to Bazen, while the second number in brackets is the numbered position they occupy within the list as a whole.

Lists recorded by Páez, Bruce and Rossini, as well as the 1922 regnal list, are all in agreement that Christ was born in the eighth year of Bazen's reign, a statement that is also clear on one of the British Museum manuscripts.^[36] If one was to calculate backwards from the Bazen's reign, then Salt's list would date Menelik I to 128–99 B.C., over 9 centuries after the traditional 10th century BC dating of Menelik's reign. If the same was done for Bruce's list, then Menelik's reign would be pushed back nearly a century earlier but would still fall far short of the 10th century BC dating. The 1922 regnal list attempts to correct this by combining various monarchs into a longer list that allows Menelik to be firmly dated to the 10th century BC.

Not all lists include regnal lengths. The second Páez list, the Bruce list, the first Salt list, the first British Museum manuscript and the 1922 regnal list all include the length of time each monarch reigned. The other 4 lists do not include reign lengths for the majority of names.

Summary

Regnal lists from Bazen to Abreha and Atsbeha

The following aggregate table chronicles monarchs who ruled after Bazen up to Abreha and Atsbeha, brothers who are credited in Ethiopian tradition with being the first rulers to convert to Christianity. Tradition recorded that Bazen's reign began in 8 BC and Ethiopia converted to Christianity in the 4th century. However, the reign lengths on some king lists push Abeha and Atsbeha's reign into the 5th century instead.

Traveller James Bruce (1730–1794).

Eight lists are compared below:

• Two regnal lists recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.^[25]
• One regnal list recorded by Scottish traveller James Bruce in his book Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790).^[39]
• One regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).^[40]
• One regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.^[41]
• Two manuscripts held in the British Museum which were quoted by British archeologist E. A. Wallis Budge. Filed under Oriental No. 821, fol. 28b and No. 821, fol. 36a respectively.^[42][39]
• The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, published in Charles Fernand Rey's book In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927).^[32]

Salt noted that the king list he quoted claimed that exactly 330 years passed between the birth of Christ and the thirteenth year of Abreha's reign, when Christianity was introduced.^[28] This is the same period of time which is quoted in other Ethiopian chronicles.^[28] Because of this, Salt deliberately altered the placement of Abreha and Atsbeha so that the thirteenth year of their joint reign would fall correctly on the date when Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia instead of contradicting this tradition.

Henry Salt theorised that the change of prefix from "Za" to "El" after the reign of Za Elasguaga reflected a change of dynasty.^[28] He believed that this theory could be confirmed by the short reigns of Za Baesi Tsawesa, Za Wakena and Za Hadus, who all reigned for a combined total of 1 year, 4 months and 2 days after the first "El" king, El Herka.^[28] He believed that the "Za" kings were the "shepherd kings" or "original Ethiopians" before being replaced by a new "race" of kings.^[28] Salt suggested that this change may have been caused by colony of Syrians who were placed by Alexander the Great near the mouth of the Red Sea according to an account written by Philostorgius.^[28]

Summary

Regnal lists from Abreha and Atsbeha to Dil Na'od

Mural in Qusayr 'Amra depicting an Axumite king from the first half of the eighth century.

The following lists chronicle the kings who reigned from Abreha and Atsbeha in the 4th century to Dil Na'od, who was the last ruler of the Axumite kingdom, which fell in c. 960.

Eight regnal lists are compared below:

• Two regnal lists recorded by Spanish missionary Pedro Páez in 1620.^[45]
• One regnal list recorded by Scottish traveller James Bruce in his book Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790).^[46]
• One regnal list recorded by English Egyptologist Henry Salt in his book A Voyage to Abyssinia (1814).^[47]
• One regnal list included in a book titled History of the Kings of Dabra Yahanes (1903), edited by Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini.^[48]
• One manuscript held in the British Museum quoted by British archeologist E. A. Wallis Budge (filed under Oriental No. 821).^[48]
• One regnal list quoted by E. A. Wallis Budge, who does not specify its origin.^[49] He believed these monarchs were "kinglets" who ruled parts of Ethiopia separate from other lines of kings between 360 and 480.^[50]
• The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, published in Charles Fernand Rey's book In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927).^[51]

Henry Salt noted that one chronicle explicitly stated that 330 years had passed between the birth of Christ and the thirteenth year of Abreha's reign, however the same chronicle makes a "very striking error" by placing Abreha after El Ahiawya and thus suggesting that his thirteenth year of rule took place 465 years after the birth of Christ.^[52] As a result, Salt's personal king list alters the order slightly by placing Abreha and Atsbeha much further up the king list.^[52] Salt believed that the five rulers of his list from El Ahiawya to Seladoba "should [probably] be also removed" altogether, which is why E. A. Wallis Budge did not name them when quoting Salt's king list.^[52][46] Salt additionally believed that there should only be one king named Ameda, though his list names two kings of this name.^[52]

The four kings Asfah, Arfad, Amosi and Seladoba reigned for a total of 32 years according to Salt's list,^[52] though he personally felt that it was more likely they reigned for a total of 70 years.^[53] Salt noted that the kings from Ameda to Dil Na'od did not have reign lengths assigned to them in the chronicles but may have reigned for a total of 354 years.^[54] Pedro Páez stated that the next three kings after Abreha and Atsbeha on his regnal list were brothers who reigned together and divided each day into three parts between themselves.^[55] A similar story is recorded elsewhere in reference to Abreha, Atsbeha and Shahel.^[50]

The second king list quoted by Páez notably continues the list of Axumite kings after Dil Na'od, who is usually considered the last king of Axum. This list names several kings after Dil Na'od who are usually placed before him on other regnal lists, suggesting this may be an error.^[56] "Ecato" and "Gudit" are also listed as two separate queens on this regnal list.^[56]

Summary

Zagwe dynasty lists

Ethiopian traditions are in agreement that the Zagwe dynasty ruled at some point after the fall of Axum and directly preceded the Solomonic dynasty, but differ regarding when this dynasty first came to power, how long it remained in power and even the number of kings who ruled. The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia acknowledges eleven kings who ruled for 333 years in total, beginning in the early 10th century:

1. Mara Takla Haymanot (920–933) (13 years)
2. Tatadim (933–973) (40 years)
3. Jan Seyum (973–1013) (40 years)
4. Germa Seyum (1013–1053) (40 years)
5. Yemrehana Krestos (1053–1093) (40 years)
6. Kedus Harbe (1093–1133) (40 years)
7. Lalibela (1133–1173) (40 years)
8. Na'akueto La'ab (1173–1213) (40 years)
9. Yetbarak (1213–1230) (17 years)
10. Mairari (1230–1245) (15 years)
11. Harbai (1245–1253) (8 years)

However, the fact that this list includes seven consecutive kings ruling for exactly 40 years each casts doubt on its historical accuracy. By comparison, a book seen by Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida claimed only 5 kings ruled for 143 years, while the Paris Chronicle states eleven kings reigned for 354 years.^[65] A manuscript held in Paris (no. 64) claimed 5 kings whose rule began in either 1145 or 1147 and ended in either 1268 or 1270.^[66]

A regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez named 5 kings, though Páez himself noted that there were other names which were missing:^[56]

1. Marari (reigned 15 years)
2. Imrâh (reigned 40 years)
3. Lalibelâ (reigned 40 years)
4. Nacutolâb (reigned 40 years)
5. Harbâi (reigned 8 years)

A text from Dabra Libanos, quoted by Carlo Conti Rossini, claimed the following list of Zagwe kings:^[67]

1. Takla Haymanot reigned 40 years.
2. Jan Seyum reigned 40 years.
3. Germa Seyum reigned 40 years.
4. Gempawedamo reigned 40 years.
5. Yemreha reigned 40 years.
6. Gabra Maryam reigned 40 years.
7. Lalibala reigned 40 years.
8. Na'akueto La'ab reigned 40 years.
9. Yetbarak reigned 9 years.

This list omits Tatadim, Kedus Harbe, Mairari and Harbai, who appear on other king lists. The text that contains this list claims that Gempawedamo was the third son of Mara Takla Haymanot.^[67]

Rossini also quoted another list that was published in 1902:^[68]

1. Pantaw
2. Pantadem (Tatadim)
3. Djan Seyum
4. Djan Germe (Germa Seyum)
5. 'Arbe (Kedus Harbe)
6. Lalibala
7. Na'akueto La'ab
8. Yemrehana Krestos
9. Yetbarak

This list moves Yemrehana Krestos further down the order of kings compared to most other Zagwe king lists. It is unclear who "Pantaw" is and whether he can be identified with the traditional Zagwe founder, Mara Takla Haymanot, or not. This list also omits the ephemeral emperors Mairari and Harbai.

A manuscript held in the British Museum (Or. 821, fol. 28b), holds a different list of kings which closer match the 1922 regnal list, though with a noticeably short reign for Mara Takla Haymanot.^[69]

1. Takla Haymanot – 3 years
2. Tatadem – 40 years
3. Jan Sheyum – 40 years
4. Germa Sheyum – 40 years
5. Yemrehna Krestos – 40 years
6. Kedus Harbe – 40 years
7. Lalibala – 40 years
8. Na'akueto La'ab – 48 years
9. Yetbarak – 40 years
10. Mayrari – 15 years
11. Harbay – 8 years

In his book, Regents of Nations, Peter Truhart included a longer list of Zagwe kings, which featured many kings that do not appear on the most commonly known lists. Paul B. Henze reports the existence of at least one list containing 16 names,^[70] which may be the one that Truhart quotes below.

Alternate variations of the Solomonic line

Beginning with the reign of Yekuno Amlak, the line of rulers becomes more consistently noted and dated across various regnal lists. However, some emperors have been excluded from certain lists:

• Andreyas, who reigned for 6 months from 1429 to 1430, was excluded from one regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez.^[72]
• The same regnal list did not name directly the ephemeral sons of Yagbe'u Seyon, but simply stated that two of his sons ruled for three years followed by three grandsons who reigned for two years.^[72]
• Susenyos II, who reigned for 4 months in late 1770, was omitted from the 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia.^[73]

1922 regnal list

The longest regnal list of Ethiopian rulers was written in 1922 and contained 321 names from 4530 BC to 1779 AD. This list combines names from the majority of other regnal lists along with many additional names of rulers of ancient Nubia (which was often called Aethiopia historically) and ancient Egypt, as well as names that originate from the Biblical, ancient Greek, Coptic and Arabic literature. This regnal list first received attention in the Western world when it was published in Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile after he had been given a copy by the Prince regent Tafari Makannon.^[74]

See also

• 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia
• List of kings of Axum
• List of emperors of Ethiopia
• List of royal consorts of Ethiopia
• Index of Ethiopia-related articles

References

Bibliography

• Budge, E. A. (1928a). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume I). London: Methuen & Co.
• Budge, E. A. (1928b). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia (Volume II). London: Methuen & Co.
• Budge, E. A. (1922). Kebra Nagast: The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek.
• Huntingford, G.W.B. (1965). "The Wealth of Kings and the End of the Zāguē Dynasty". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 28 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00056731. JSTOR 611706. S2CID 161195803.
• Kropp, Manfred (2006). "Ein später Schüler des Julius Africanus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts in Äthiopien". In Wallraf, Martin (ed.). Julius Africanus und die christliche Weltchronistik (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019105-9.
• Morié, Louis J. (1904). Histoire de L'Éthiopie (Nubie et Abyssinie): Histoire de L'Abyssinie (in French). Paris: A. Challamel. pp. 72–73.
• Páez, Pedro (2008). Isabel Boavida; Hervé Pennec; Manuel João Ramos (eds.). História da Etiópia (in Portuguese). Assirio & Alvim.
• Rey, C. F. (1927). In the Country of the Blue Nile. London: Camelot Press.
• Salt, Henry (1814). A Voyage to Abyssinia. London: W. Bulmer and Co.
• Truhart, Peter (1984). Regents of Nations (Part 1). Munich: K. G. Saur. ISBN 3-598-10492-8.