Robot Operating System
Original author(s)Willow Garage
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
Open Robotics
Initial release2007 (2007)
Stable release
Iron Irwini[1] / 23 May 2023 (2023-05-23)
Preview release
Jazzy Jalisco (ROS 2)[2]
Repositorygithub.com/ros2/ros2
Written inC++, Python, and Lisp
Operating systemLinux, macOS (experimental), Windows 10 (experimental)
TypeRobotics suite, OS, library
LicenseApache 2.0
Websitewww.ros.org
As ofJune 2023

Robot Operating System (ROS or ros) is an open-source robotics middleware suite. Although ROS is not an operating system (OS) but a set of software frameworks for robot software development, it provides services designed for a heterogeneous computer cluster such as hardware abstraction, low-level device control, implementation of commonly used functionality, message-passing between processes, and package management. Running sets of ROS-based processes are represented in a graph architecture where processing takes place in nodes that may receive, post, and multiplex sensor data, control, state, planning, actuator, and other messages. Despite the importance of reactivity and low latency in robot control, ROS is not a real-time operating system (RTOS). However, it is possible to integrate ROS with real-time computing code.[3] The lack of support for real-time systems has been addressed in the creation of ROS 2,[4][5][6] a major revision of the ROS API which will take advantage of modern libraries and technologies for core ROS functions and add support for real-time code and embedded system hardware.

Software in the ROS Ecosystem[7] can be separated into three groups:

  • language-and platform-independent tools used for building and distributing ROS-based software;
  • ROS client library implementations such as roscpp,[8] rospy,[9] and roslisp;[10]
  • packages containing application-related code which uses one or more ROS client libraries.[11]

Both the language-independent tools and the main client libraries (C++, Python, and Lisp) are released under the terms of the BSD license, and as such are open-source software and free for both commercial and research use. The majority of other packages are licensed under a variety of open-source licenses. These other packages implement commonly used functionality and applications such as hardware drivers, robot models, datatypes, planning, perception, simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), simulation tools, and other algorithms.

The main ROS client libraries are geared toward a Unix-like system, mostly because of their dependence on large sets of open-source software dependencies. For these client libraries, Ubuntu Linux is listed as "Supported" while other variants such as Fedora Linux, macOS, and Microsoft Windows are designated "experimental" and are supported by the community.[12] The native Java ROS client library, rosjava,[13] however, does not share these limitations and has enabled ROS-based software to be written for the Android OS.[14] rosjava has also enabled ROS to be integrated into an officially supported MATLAB toolbox which can be used on Linux, macOS, and Microsoft Windows.[15] A JavaScript client library, roslibjs[16] has also been developed which enables integration of software into a ROS system via any standards-compliant web browser.

History

Early days at Stanford (2007 and earlier)

Sometime before 2007, the first pieces of what eventually would become ROS began coalescing at Stanford University.[17][18] Eric Berger and Keenan Wyrobek, PhD students working in Kenneth Salisbury's[19] robotics laboratory at Stanford, were leading the Personal Robotics Program.[20] While working on robots to do manipulation tasks in human environments, the two students noticed that many of their colleagues were held back by the diverse nature of robotics: an excellent software developer might not have the hardware knowledge required, someone developing state of the art path planning might not know how to do the computer vision required. In an attempt to remedy this situation, the two students set out to make a baseline system that would provide a starting place for others in academia to build upon. In the words of Eric Berger, "something that didn’t suck, in all of those different dimensions".[17]

In their first steps towards this unifying system, the two built the PR1 as a hardware prototype and began to work on software from it, borrowing the best practices from other early open-source robotic software frameworks, particularly switchyard, a system that Morgan Quigley, another Stanford PhD student, had been working on in support of the STanford Artificial Intelligence Robot (STAIR)[21][22][23][24] by the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Early funding of US$50,000 was provided by Joanna Hoffman and Alain Rossmann, which supported the development of the PR1. While seeking funding for further development,[25] Eric Berger and Keenan Wyrobek met Scott Hassan, the founder of Willow Garage, a technology incubator which was working on an autonomous SUV and a solar autonomous boat. Hassan shared Berger and Wyrobek's vision of a "Linux for robotics", and invited them to come and work at Willow Garage. Willow Garage was started in January 2007, and the first commit of ROS code was made to SourceForge on 7 November 2007.[26]

Willow Garage (2007–2013)

Willow Garage began developing the PR2 robot as a follow-up to the PR1, and ROS as the software to run it. Groups from more than twenty institutions made contributions to ROS, both the core software and the growing number of packages which worked with ROS to form a greater software ecosystem.[27][28] That people outside of Willow were contributing to ROS (especially from Stanford's STAIR project) meant that ROS was a multi-robot platform from the start. While Willow Garage had originally had other projects in progress, they were scrapped in favor of the Personal Robotics Program: focused on producing the PR2 as a research platform for academia and ROS as the open-source robotics stack that would underlie both academic research and tech startups, much like the LAMP stack did for web-based startups.

In December 2008, Willow Garage met the first of their three internal milestones: continuous navigation for the PR2 over a period of two days and a distance of pi kilometers.[29] Soon after, an early version of ROS (0.4 Mango Tango)[30] was released, followed by the first RVIZ documentation and the first paper on ROS.[28] In early summer, the second internal milestone: having the PR2 navigate the office, open doors, and plug itself it in, was reached.[31] This was followed in August by the initiation of the ROS.org website.[32] Early tutorials on ROS were posted in December,[33] preparing for the release of ROS 1.0, in January 2010.[34] This was Milestone 3: producing tons of documentation and tutorials for the enormous abilities that Willow Garage's engineers had developed over the preceding 3 years.

Following this, Willow Garage achieved one of its longest held goals: giving away 10 PR2 robots to worthy academic institutions. This had long been a goal of the founders, as they felt that the PR2 could kick-start robotics research around the world. They ended up awarding eleven PR2s to different institutions, including University of Freiburg (Germany), Robert Bosch GmbH, Georgia Institute of Technology, KU Leuven (Belgium), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Stanford University, Technical University of Munich (Germany), University of California, Berkeley, University of Pennsylvania, University of Southern California (USC), and University of Tokyo (Japan).[35] This, combined with Willow Garage's highly successful internship program[36] (run from 2008 to 2010 by Melonee Wise), helped to spread the word about ROS throughout the robotics world. The first official ROS distribution release: ROS Box Turtle, was released on 2 March 2010, marking the first time that ROS was officially distributed with a set of versioned packages for public use. These developments led to the first drone running ROS,[37] the first autonomous car running ROS,[38] and the adaption of ROS for Lego Mindstorms.[39] With the PR2 Beta program well underway, the PR2 robot was officially released for commercial purchase on 9 September 2010.[40]

An image of Robot Operating System (ROS) running in Antarctica.

2011 was a banner year for ROS with the launch of ROS Answers, a Q/A forum for ROS users, on 15 February;[41] the introduction of the highly successful TurtleBot robot kit on 18 April;[42] and the total number of ROS repositories passing 100 on 5 May.[43] Willow Garage began 2012 by creating the Open Source Robotics Foundation (OSRF)[44] in April. The OSRF was immediately awarded a software contract by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[45] Later that year, the first ROSCon was held in St. Paul, Minnesota,[46] the first book on ROS, ROS By Example,[47] was published, and Baxter, the first commercial robot to run ROS, was announced by Rethink Robotics.[48] Soon after passing its fifth anniversary in November, ROS began running on every continent on 3 December 2012.[49]

In February 2013, the OSRF became the primary software maintainers for ROS,[50] foreshadowing the announcement in August that Willow Garage would be absorbed by its founders, Suitable Technologies.[51] At this point, ROS had released seven major versions (up to ROS Groovy),[52] and had users all over the globe. This chapter of ROS development would be finalized when Clearpath Robotics took over support responsibilities for the PR2 in early 2014.[53]

OSRF and Open Robotics (2013–present)

In the years since OSRF took over primary development of ROS, a new version has been released every year,[52] while interest in ROS continues to grow. ROSCons have occurred every year since 2012, co-located with either ICRA or IROS, two flagship robotics conferences. Meetups of ROS developers have been organized in a variety of countries,[54][55][56] a number of ROS books have been published,[57] and many educational programs initiated.[58][59] On 1 September 2014, NASA announced the first robot to run ROS in space: Robotnaut 2, on the International Space Station.[60] In 2017, the OSRF changed its name to Open Robotics. Tech giants Amazon and Microsoft began to take an interest in ROS during this time, with Microsoft porting core ROS to Windows in September 2018,[61] followed by Amazon Web Services releasing RoboMaker in November 2018.[62]

Perhaps the most important development of the OSRF/Open Robotics years thus far (not to discount the explosion of robot platforms which began to support ROS or the enormous improvements in each ROS version) was the proposal of ROS 2, a significant API change to ROS which is intended to support real-time programming, a wider variety of computing environments, and more modern technology.[63] ROS 2 was announced at ROSCon 2014,[64] the first commits to the ros2 repository were made in February 2015, followed by alpha releases in August 2015.[65] The first distribution release of ROS 2, Ardent Apalone, was released on 8 December 2017,[65] ushering in a new era of next-generation ROS development.

Design

Philosophy

An image depicting the ROS equation: Plumbing + Tools + Capabilities + Ecosystem = ROS!
An image depicting the ROS equation: Plumbing + Tools + Capabilities + Ecosystem = ROS!

ROS was designed to be open source, intending that users would be able to choose the configuration of tools and libraries which interacted with the core of ROS so that users could shift their software stacks to fit their robot and application area. As such, there is very little which is core to ROS, beyond the general structure within which programs must exist and communicate. In one sense, ROS is the underlying plumbing behind nodes and message passing. However, in reality, ROS is not only that plumbing, but a rich and mature set of tools, a wide-ranging set of robot-agnostic abilities provided by packages, and a greater ecosystem of additions to ROS.

Computation graph model

ROS processes are represented as nodes in a graph structure, connected by edges called topics.[66] ROS nodes can pass messages to one another through topics, make service calls to other nodes, provide a service for other nodes, or set or retrieve shared data from a communal database called the parameter server. A process called the ROS Master[66] makes all of this possible by registering nodes to itself, setting up node-to-node communication for topics, and controlling parameter server updates. Messages and service calls do not pass through the master, rather the master sets up peer-to-peer communication between all node processes after they register themselves with the master. This decentralized architecture lends itself well to robots, which often consist of a subset of networked computer hardware, and may communicate with off-board computers for heavy computing or commands.

Nodes

A node represents one process running the ROS graph. Every node has a name, which it registers with the ROS master before it can take any other actions. Multiple nodes with different names can exist under different namespaces, or a node can be defined as anonymous, in which case it will randomly generate an additional identifier to add to its given name. Nodes are at the center of ROS programming, as most ROS client code is in the form of a ROS node which takes actions based on information received from other nodes, sends information to other nodes, or sends and receives requests for actions to and from other nodes.

Topics

Topics are named buses over which nodes send and receive messages.[67] Topic names must be unique within their namespace as well. To send messages to a topic, a node must publish to said topic, while to receive messages it must subscribe. The publish/subscribe model is anonymous: no node knows which nodes are sending or receiving on a topic, only that it is sending/receiving on that topic. The types of messages passed on a topic vary widely and can be user-defined. The content of these messages can be sensor data, motor control commands, state information, actuator commands, or anything else.

Services

A node may also advertise services.[68] A service represents an action that a node can take which will have a single result. As such, services are often used for actions which have a defined start and end, such as capturing a one-frame image, rather than processing velocity commands to a wheel motor or odometer data from a wheel encoder. Nodes advertise services and call services from one another.

Parameter server

The parameter server[68] is a database shared between nodes which allows for communal access to static or semi-static information. Data which does not change frequently and as such will be infrequently accessed, such as the distance between two fixed points in the environment, or the weight of the robot, are good candidates for storage in the parameter server.

Tools

ROS's core functionality is augmented by a variety of tools which allow developers to visualize and record data, easily navigate the ROS package structures, and create scripts automating complex configuration and setup processes. The addition of these tools greatly increases the abilities of systems using ROS by simplifying and providing solutions to a number of common robotics development problems. These tools are provided in packages like any other algorithm, but rather than providing implementations of hardware drivers or algorithms for various robotic tasks, these packages provide task and robot-agnostic tools which come with the core of most modern ROS installations.

rviz

rviz[69] (Robot Visualization tool) is a three-dimensional visualizer used to visualize robots, the environments they work in, and sensor data. It is a highly configurable tool, with many different types of visualizations and plugins. Unified Robot Description Format (URDF) is an XML file format for robot model description.

rosbag

rosbag[70] is a command line tool used to record and playback ROS message data. rosbag uses a file format called bags,[71] which log ROS messages by listening to topics and recording messages as they come in. Playing messages back from a bag is largely the same as having the original nodes which produced the data in the ROS computation graph, making bags a useful tool for recording data to be used in later development. While rosbag is a command line only tool, rqt_bag[72] provides a GUI interface to rosbag.

catkin

catkin[73] is the ROS build system, having replaced rosbuild[74] as of ROS Groovy. catkin is based on CMake, and is similarly cross-platform, open-source, and language-independent.

rosbash

The rosbash[75] package provides a suite of tools which augment the functionality of the bash shell. These tools include rosls, roscd, and roscp, which replicate the functionalities of ls, cd, and cp respectively. The ROS versions of these tools allow users to use ros package names in place of the file path where the package is located. The package also adds tab-completion to most ROS utilities, and includes rosed, which edits a given file with the chosen default text editor, as well rosrun, which runs executables in ROS packages. rosbash supports the same functionalities for zsh and tcsh, to a lesser extent.

roslaunch

roslaunch[76] is a tool used to launch multiple ROS nodes both locally and remotely, as well as setting parameters on the ROS parameter server. roslaunch configuration files, which are written using XML can easily automate a complex startup and configuration process into a single command. roslaunch scripts can include other roslaunch scripts, launch nodes on specific machines, and even restart processes which die during execution.

Packages of note

ROS contains many open-source implementations of common robotics functionality and algorithms. These open-source implementations are organized into packages. Many packages are included as part of ROS distributions, while others may be developed by individuals and distributed through code sharing sites such as github. Some packages of note include:

Systems and tools

  • actionlib[77] provides a standardized interface for interfacing with preemptable tasks.
  • nodelet[78] provides a way to run multiple algorithms in a single process.
  • rosbridge[79] provides a JSON API to ROS functionalities for non-ROS programs.

Mapping and localization

  • navigation[84] provides the capability of navigating a mobile robot in a planar environment.

Manipulation

Perception

  • vision_opencv[87] is a meta-package which provides packages for integrating ROS with OpenCV.

Coordinate frame representation

  • tf[88] provided a system for representing, tracking and transforming coordinate frames until ROS Hydro, when it was deprecated in favor of tf2.
  • tf2[89] is the second generation of the tf library, and provides the same abilities for ROS versions after Hydro.

Simulation

  • gazebo_ros_pkgs[90] is a meta-package which provides packages for integrating ROS with the Gazebo simulator.
  • stage[91] provides an interface for the 2D Stage simulator.

Versions and releases

ROS releases may be incompatible with other releases and are often referred to by code name rather than version number. ROS currently releases a version every year in May, following the release of Ubuntu LTS versions.[92] ROS 2 currently releases a new version every six months (in December and July). These releases are supported for a single year. There are currently two active major versions seeing releases: ROS 1 and ROS 2. Aside to this there is the ROS-Industrial or ROS-I derivate project since at least 2012.

ROS 1

ROS 1 Distribution Releases[52]
Distribution Release date Poster EOL date Support duration
Noetic Ninjemys
(last ROS 1 release)		 23 May 2020 Current stable version: May 2025 5 years
Melodic Morenia 23 May 2018 Old version, no longer maintained: 2023-05-30 5 years
Lunar Loggerhead 23 May 2017 Old version, no longer maintained: 2019-05-30 2 years
Kinetic Kame 23 May 2016 Old version, no longer maintained: 2021-05-30 5 years
Jade Turtle 23 May 2015 Old version, no longer maintained: 2017-05-30 2 years
Indigo Igloo 22 July 2014 Old version, no longer maintained: 2019-04-30 5 years
Hydro Medusa 4 September 2013 Old version, no longer maintained: 2014-05-31 0.5 years
Groovy Galapagos 31 December 2012 Old version, no longer maintained: 2014-07-31 2 years
Fuerte Turtle 23 April 2012 Old version, no longer maintained: --
Electric Emys 30 August 2011 Old version, no longer maintained: --
Diamondback 2 March 2011 Old version, no longer maintained: --
C Turtle 2 August 2010 Old version, no longer maintained: --
Box Turtle 2 March 2010 Old version, no longer maintained: --
(Initial Release) 2007 n/a Old version, no longer maintained: -- n/a
Legend:
Old version
Older version, still maintained
Latest version
Latest preview version
Future release

ROS 2

ROS 2 Distribution Releases[65][93]
Distribution Release date Poster EOL date Support duration
Rolling Ridley[94][95]
(rolling release with latest features)		 progressing since
June 2020		 The release poster for ROS 2 Rolling Ridley. N/A N/A
Jazzy Jalisco[2] May 2024 t.b.d. Future release: EST. May 2029 5 years
Iron Irwini 23 May 2023[96] The release poster for ROS 2 Iron Irwini. Current stable version: November 2024 1.5 years
Humble Hawksbill 23 May 2022[97] The release poster for ROS 2 Humble Hawksbill. Older version, yet still maintained: May 2027 5 years
Galactic Geochelone 23 May 2021[98] The release poster for ROS 2 Galactic Geochelone. Old version, no longer maintained: December 2022 1.5 years
Foxy Fitzroy 5 June 2020[99] The release poster ROS 2 Foxy Fitzroy. Old version, no longer maintained: June 2023 3 years
Eloquent Elusor 22 November 2019 The release poster ROS 2 Eloquent Elusor. Old version, no longer maintained: November 2020 1 year
Dashing Diademata 31 May 2019 The release poster ROS 2 Dashing Diademata. Old version, no longer maintained: May 2021 2 years
Crystal Clemmys 14 December 2018 The release poster ROS 2 Crystal Clemmys. Old version, no longer maintained: December 2019 1 year
Bouncy Bolson 2 July 2018 The release poster ROS 2 Bouncy Bolson. Old version, no longer maintained: July 2019 1 year
Ardent Apalone 8 December 2017 The release poster ROS 2 Ardent Apalone. Old version, no longer maintained: December 2018 1 year
beta3 13 September 2017 N/A Old version, no longer maintained: December 2017 4 months
beta2 5 July 2017 N/A Old version, no longer maintained: September 2017 2 months
beta1 19 December 2016 N/A Old version, no longer maintained: July 2017 7 months
(ROS 2 real-time proposal) 7 January 2016[100] N/A N/A N/A
alpha1 (Anchor) -
alpha8 (Hook-and-Loop)[101]		 31 August 2015 -
5 October 2016[102]		 N/A Old version, no longer maintained: December 2016 total: 16 months
("Why ROS 2?") 20 July 2015[103] N/A N/A N/A
(batch CI jobs for ROS 2
and http://design.ros2.org)		 referenced in Q&A
6 May 2015[104]		 N/A N/A N/A
(first commits to
ROS 2 repository)		 February 2015 N/A N/A N/A
ROSCon 2014:[105][106]
"Next-generation ROS: Building on DDS",
"ROS 2.0: Developer preview"		 12 September 2014 N/A N/A N/A
Legend:
Old version
Older version, still maintained
Latest version
Latest preview version
Future release

ROS-Industrial

ROS-Industrial[107] is an open-source project (BSD (legacy)/Apache 2.0 (preferred) license) that extends the advanced abilities of ROS to manufacturing automation and robotics. In the industrial environment, there are two different approaches to programming a robot: either through an external proprietary controller, typically implemented using ROS, or via the respective native programming language of the robot. ROS can therefore be seen as the software-based approach to program industrial robots instead of the classic robot controller-based approach.[108]

The ROS-Industrial repository includes interfaces for common industrial manipulators, grippers, sensors, and device networks. It also provides software libraries for automatic 2D/3D sensor calibration, process path/motion planning, applications like Scan-N-Plan, developer tools like the Qt Creator ROS Plugin, and training curriculum that is specific to the needs of manufacturers. ROS-I is supported by an international Consortium of industry and research members. The project began as a collaborative endeavor between Yaskawa Motoman Robotics, Southwest Research Institute, and Willow Garage to support the use of ROS for manufacturing automation, with the GitHub repository being founded in January 2012 by Shaun Edwards (SwRI). Currently, the Consortium is divided into three groups; the ROS-Industrial Consortium Americas (led by SwRI and located in San Antonio, Texas), the ROS-Industrial Consortium Europe (led by Fraunhofer IPA and located in Stuttgart, Germany) and the ROS-Industrial Consortium Asia Pacific (led by Advanced Remanufacturing and Technology Centre (ARTC) and Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and located in Singapore).

The Consortia supports the global ROS-Industrial community by conducting ROS-I training, providing technical support and setting the future roadmap for ROS-I, as well as conducting precompetitive joint industry projects to develop new ROS-I abilities.[109]

ROS-compatible robots and hardware

Robots

  • ABB, Adept, Fanuc, Motoman, and Universal Robots are supported by ROS-Industrial.[110]
  • Baxter[111] at Rethink Robotics, Inc.
  • CK-9: robotics development kit by Centauri Robotics, supports ROS.[112]
  • GoPiGo3: Raspberry Pi-based educational robot, supports ROS.[113]
  • HERB[114] developed at Carnegie Mellon University in Intel's personal robotics program
  • Husky A200: robot developed (and integrated into ROS) by Clearpath Robotics[115]
  • Nao[116] humanoid: University of Freiburg's Humanoid Robots Lab[117] developed a ROS integration for the Nao humanoid based on an initial port by Brown University[118][119]
  • PR1: personal robot developed in Ken Salisbury's lab at Stanford[120]
  • PR2: personal robot being developed at Willow Garage[121]
  • Raven II Surgical Robotic Research Platform[122][123]
  • ROSbot: autonomous robot platform by Husarion[124]
  • Shadow Robot Hand:[125] a fully dexterous humanoid hand.
  • STAIR I and II:[126] robots developed in Andrew Ng's lab at Stanford
  • Stretch: an integrated mobile manipulator by Hello Robot targeting assistive applications.[127][128]
  • SummitXL:[129] mobile robot developed by Robotnik, an engineering company specialized in mobile robots, robotic arms, and industrial solutions with ROS architecture.
  • UBR1:[130][131] developed by Unbounded Robotics, a spin-off of Willow Garage.
  • Webots: robot simulator integrating a complete ROS programming interface.[132]

SBCs and hardware

See also

References

  1. ↑ "ROS 2 Iron Irwini". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
  2. 1 2 "ROS 2 Jazzy Jalisco". ROS.org. Open Robotics. May 2024. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
  3. ↑ "ROS/Introduction – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
  4. ↑ Kay, Jackie (January 2016). "Proposal for Implementation of Real-time Systems in ROS 2". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  5. ↑ Kay, Jackie (January 2016). "Realtime Design Guidelines For ROS 2". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  6. ↑ "ROS 2 For Realtime Applications". ROS.org. Open Robotics. 17 October 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
  7. ↑ "Browsing packages for melodic". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  8. ↑ "Package Summary". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  9. ↑ "Package SUmmary". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  10. ↑ "Package Summary". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  11. ↑ "client libraries". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  12. ↑ "ROS/Installation – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. 29 September 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  13. ↑ "rosjava – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  14. ↑ "android – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. 12 April 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  15. ↑ "Robot Operating System (ROS) Support from MATLAB – Hardware Support". Mathworks.com. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  16. ↑ "roslibjs – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  17. 1 2 Guizzo, Evan Ackerman and Erico (7 November 2017). "Wizards of ROS: Willow Garage and the Making of the Robot Operating System". IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  18. ↑ Wyrobek, Keenan (31 October 2017). "The Origin Story of ROS, the Linux of Robotics". IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  19. ↑ "J. Kenneth Salisbury, Ph.D. | Salisbury Robotics Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  20. ↑ "Stanford Personal Robotics Program". personalrobotics.stanford.edu. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  21. ↑ "Stanford's Robot Makers". 16 January 2019.
  22. ↑ Ng, Andrew; Gould, Stephen; Quigley, Morgan; Saxena, Ashutosh; Berger, Eric (2008). "STAIR: The STanford Artificial Intelligence Robot project". Snowbird Workshop.
  23. ↑ "STAIR". stair.Stanford.edu. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  24. ↑ Quigley, Morgan; Berger, Eric; Ng, Andrew Y. (2007), STAIR: Hardware and Software Architecture (PDF), AAAI 2007 Robotics Workshop
  25. ↑ Keenan Wyrobek (3 July 2017). "Personal Robotics Program Fund Fundraising Deck from 2006". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  26. ↑ "Repository: code". Sourceforge.net. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  27. ↑ "Repositories". ROS.org. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
  28. 1 2 Quigley, Morgan; Gerkey, Brian; Conley, Ken; Faust, Josh; Foote, Tully; Leibs, Jeremy; Berger, Eric; Wheeler, Rob; Ng, Andrew. "ROS: an open-source Robot Operating System" (PDF). Retrieved 3 April 2010.
  29. ↑ WillowGaragevideo (19 December 2008), Milestone 1, retrieved 29 April 2019
  30. ↑ "ROS 0.4 Release – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  31. ↑ WillowGaragevideo (2 July 2009), Milestone 2 Explained, retrieved 29 April 2019
  32. ↑ "Welcome to ros.org – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  33. ↑ "ROS Tutorials and Turtles – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  34. ↑ "ROS 1.0 – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  35. ↑ "The Results Are In: PR2 Beta Program Recipients!". Willow Garage. Archived from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  36. ↑ "Interns and Visiting Scholars". Willow Garage. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  37. ↑ "Robots Using ROS: Penn Quadrotors – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  38. ↑ "Robots Using ROS: Marvin autonomous car (Austin Robot Technology/UT Austin) – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  39. ↑ "Robots Using ROS: Lego NXT – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  40. ↑ "PR2 Robots Available for Purchase".
  41. ↑ "Announcing ROS Answers – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  42. ↑ "ROS on the Move: TurtleBots available for preorder". Willow Garage. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  43. ↑ "100 Repositories – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  44. ↑ "Willow Garage Spins Out OSRF". Archived from the original on 6 November 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  45. ↑ "DARPA Awards Simulation Software Contract to Open Source Robotics Foundation".
  46. ↑ "Thanks for a great ROSCon 2012! – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  47. ↑ "New Book: ROS by Example – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  48. ↑ "Rethink ROS – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  49. ↑ "ROS: Five Years – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  50. ↑ "Osrf – Ros @ Osrf". Osrfoundation.org. 11 February 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  51. ↑ "employees join Suitable Technologies". Willow Garage. Archived from the original on 8 October 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  52. 1 2 3 "Distributions – ROS Wiki". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  53. ↑ "Clearpath Welcomes PR2 to the Family". 15 January 2014.
  54. ↑ "Notes from the first Korean ROS Users Meetup – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
  55. ↑ "First Danish ROS Meetup".
  56. ↑ "First Ukrainian ROS Meetup".
  57. ↑ "Programming Robots with ROS: A Practical Introduction to the Robot Operating System". OReilly.com. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  58. ↑ "Report from first ROS Summer School in China – ROS robotics news". ROS.org. Open Robotics. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
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Notes
  • STAIR: The STanford Artificial Intelligence Robot project, Andrew Y. Ng, Stephen Gould, Morgan Quigley, Ashutosh Saxena, Eric Berger. Snowbird, 2008.
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