| Adzera | |
|---|---|
| Region | Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea |
Native speakers | ca. 30,000 (2000 census)[1] |
| Latin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Variously:adz – Adzerazsu – Sukurumzsa – Sarasira |
| Glottolog | adze1240 Adzerasuku1264 Sukurumsara1323 Sarasira |
| ELP | Adzera |
Adzera (also spelled Atzera, Azera, Atsera, Acira) is an Austronesian language spoken by about 30,000 people in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
Dialects
Holzknecht (1989) lists six Adzera dialects.[2]
- Central dialect chain: 9,950 speakers
- Amari dialect: 5,350 speakers
- Ngarowapum dialect: 1,200 speakers
- Yaros dialect: 2,200 speakers
- Guruf / Ngariawang dialect: 1,550 speakers
- Tsumanggorun dialect: 400 speakers
Sukurum is spoken in the villages of Sukurum (6°16′35″S 146°28′36″E / 6.27629°S 146.476694°E), Rumrinan (6°16′40″S 146°28′36″E / 6.277752°S 146.476623°E), Gabagiap (6°17′22″S 146°27′58″E / 6.289357°S 146.465999°E), Gupasa, Waroum (6°17′14″S 146°27′14″E / 6.287214°S 146.453831°E), and Wangat (6°21′11″S 146°25′07″E / 6.35307°S 146.418517°E) in Wantoat/Leron Rural LLG.[2]
Sarasira is spoken in the villages of Sarasira (6°19′15″S 146°28′59″E / 6.320957°S 146.48297°E), Som (6°19′26″S 146°30′27″E / 6.323791°S 146.507495°E), Pukpuk, Saseang (6°25′08″S 146°25′01″E / 6.418768°S 146.416931°E), and Sisuk in Wantoat/Leron Rural LLG. Sarasira and Som share the same speech variety.[2]
Phonology
Vowels
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| High | i | u |
| Mid | o | |
| Low | ɑ | |
The diphthongs /ɑi ɑu/ occur, while other sequences of vowels are split over two syllables.
/o/ does not occur in the Amari and Ngarowapum dialects.
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | tʃ | k | ʔ |
| prenasal vl. | ᵐp | ⁿt | ⁿtʃ | ᵑk | ᵑʔ | |
| voiced | b | d | dʒ | ɡ | ||
| prenasal vd. | ⁿdʒ | |||||
| Fricative | f | s | h | |||
| Approximant | w | j | ||||
| Rhotic | r | |||||
/h/ occurs in only one word: the interjection hai "yes".
In the Amari dialect, palato-alveolar affricates /tʃ, ⁿtʃ/ and /dʒ, ⁿdʒ/ are heard as only alveolar sounds [ts, ⁿts] and [dz, ⁿdz].[3]
The prenasalized consonants tend to lose prenasalization initially and after consonants.
/tʃ ⁿtʃ/ are sometimes realized as [ts ⁿts], especially in codas.
Writing system
| A a | B b | D d | Dz dz | F f | G g | H h | I i | K k | M m | Mp mp | N n | Ndz ndz | Nt nt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /ɑ/ | /b/ | /d/ | /dʒ/ | /f/ | /ɡ/ | /h/ | /i/ | /k/ | /m/ | /ᵐp/ | /n/ | /ⁿdʒ/ | /ⁿt/ |
| Nts nts | Ŋ ŋ | Ŋk ŋk | Ŋʼ ŋʼ | P p | R r | S s | T t | Ts ts | U u | W w | Y y | ʼ | |
| /ⁿtʃ/ | /ŋ/ | /ᵑk/ | /ᵑʔ/ | /p/ | /r/ | /s/ | /t/ | /tʃ/ | /u/ | /w/ | /j/ | /ʔ/ |
J, o and z are used in some loanwords and names.
The letter ŋ was replaced by the digraph ng in the 2015 orthography.[4]
Grammar
Negation
Simple negation
Simple negation in Adzera is achieved by the word imaʔ 'no'. This word can be used on its own in response to a question, or paired with a negative sentence.[5] For example:
The Amari dialect of Adzera is specifically noted for its use of namu for 'no' where all other Adzera dialects would use imaʔ. however, in Amari both words can be used interchangeably.[5]
Negation of a noun phrase
The simple negative forms above can be used in a noun phrase after the noun to modify it. Such as mamaʔ namu 'No children'. This can also apply to a coordinated noun phrase, such as iyam da ifab 'dog and pig' where iyam da ifab namu would mean that there were no dogs and no pigs.[6]
Negation of a verb phrase
Most negation is done through the verb phrase. For general circumstances, verbal negation is achieved by a verbal prefix anuŋʔ- And an optional negation particle u at the end of the sentence.[7] For example:
However, for verbs in the imperative or hortative forms, which take a prefix wa- or na- respectively, the negative is achieved by replacing their respective prefixes with a negative form ma- followed at the end of the sentence by a compulsory particle maʔ.[8]
Coordinated verb negation
When two negative verbs or phrases are joined by da ‘and’ the first verb takes the negative prefix anuŋʔ-, and the negative particle u comes at the end of the whole sentence.[9]
muŋʔ ugu
a.long.time.ago
da
TIME.MARKER
sagat
woman
anuŋʔ-
NEG
i-
REAL
ga
eat
was
lime
da
and
i-
REAL
is
hit
pauʔ
tobacco
u
NEG
A long time ago, women neither chewed betel nut nor smoked tobacco.[9] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Negation with future tense
When negating a sentence in the future tense, the future tense prefix is replaced with the realis prefix. Any future time marking still remains. There is also a preference toward forming negative sentences in the future tense with an auxiliary verb saŋʔ 'be able, be enough' before the main verb of the sentence, suggesting a reluctance toward making negative statements about the future.[10] For example:
tataʔ
tomorrow
da
TIME.MARKER
u
2SG
anuŋʔ-
NEG
i-
REAL
saŋʔ
be.enough
fa
go
-da
PTCP
taun
town
u
NEG
Tomorrow you will not be able to go to town.[10] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
When coordinating two sentences of future tense, the first verb phrase replaces the future prefix with the realis, but all following verb phrases retain their future tense marking.[10]
List of abbreviations
see List of Glossing Abbreviations.
Below is a list of Grammatical abbreviations used throughout this article:
| Grammatical Abbreviations | |
|---|---|
| NEG | Negative |
| 1SG | 1st Person Singular |
| REAL | Realis |
| PTCP | Participle |
| 2SG | 2nd Person Singular |
| COMP | Completive |
| IMP | Imperative |
References
- ↑ Adzera at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Sukurum at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Sarasira at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) - 1 2 3 4 5 Holzknecht, Susanne (1989). The Markham Languages of Papua New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-394-8.
- ↑ Holzknecht (1986), p. 83-93
- ↑ "HIV da AIDS Nan Gan". SIL.org.
- 1 2 3 Holzknecht (1986), pp. 137–138
- ↑ Holzknecht (1986), p. 138
- 1 2 Holzknecht (1986), p. 138
- 1 2 Holzknecht (1986), pp. 140–141
- 1 2 Holzknecht (1986), p. 140
- 1 2 3 Holzknecht (1986), p. 139–140
Further reading
- Cates, Ann R. (1974). "The Atzera Literacy Programme: An Experimental Campaign in Papua New Guinea". Papua New Guinea Journal of Education. 10: 34–38.
- Holzknecht, K. G. (1973a). "The Phonemes of the Adzera Language". In Holzknecht, K.; Phillips, D. (eds.). Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 17. Series A – No. 38. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 1–11. doi:10.15144/PL-A38.1. hdl:1885/145022.
- Holzknecht, K. G. (1973b). "Morphophonemics of the Adzera Language". In Holzknecht, K.; Phillips, D. (eds.). Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 17. Series A – No. 38. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 13–19. doi:10.15144/PL-A38.13. hdl:1885/145022.
- Holzknecht, K. G. (1973c). "A Synopsis of Verb Forms in Adzera". In Holzknecht, K.; Phillips, D. (eds.). Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 17. Series A – No. 38. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 21–28. doi:10.15144/PL-A38.21. hdl:1885/145022.
- Holzknecht, K. G. (1978). Adzera–English Dictionary.
- Holzknecht, S. (1986). "A Morphology and Grammar of Adzera (Amari Dialect), Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea". Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. Series A – No. 70. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 77–166. doi:10.15144/PL-A70.77. hdl:1885/145029.
- Howard, David Edward (2002). Continuity and Given-New Status of Discourse Referents in Adzera Oral Narrative (PDF) (M.A. thesis). University of Texas at Arlington – via Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Roke, Ann; Price, Dorothy (1970). A Summary of the Atzera Literacy Programme. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.